French Revolution & Rise of Napoleon (1789-1815)
The French Revolution (1789-1799)
Peasant revolts had been occurring since May 1789. Throughout the summer, riots broke out, and the houses of the wealthy were attacked. This period became known as the Great Fear. Many noblemen attempted to flee France. Most people still desired a king, but one constrained by the laws of the people—a constitutional monarchy.
The National Assembly’s first action was the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted in August 1789. The Assembly also drafted a constitution, which was completed and enacted in 1791. Louis XVI remained the King of France, but within a constitutional monarchy.
The constitution established the separation of powers, as advocated by Montesquieu:
- The National Assembly served as the legislative body.
- The King and royal ministers constituted the executive branch.
- The judiciary (judges and courts of justice) was independent of the other two branches.
Locally, the previous feudal geographic divisions were formally abolished, and the territory of the French state was divided into several administrative units: Departments.
Attitudes towards the King shifted dramatically over the following years as he attempted to escape and join foreign absolute monarchs who intended to invade France. These monarchs aimed to suppress the French Revolution, viewing it as a dangerous precedent for their own kingdoms. Ultimately, France declared war on Austria in 1792.
The King was deemed a traitor. The war progressed poorly, causing economic hardship in France. The King’s unpopularity grew, leading to an attack on his palace by the people of Paris. He was arrested and imprisoned. In September 1792, France was declared a Republic, and a new calendar was introduced.
The King, his wife Marie Antoinette, and many clergy and nobles were executed. France was now governed by an assembly called The Convention. Various political factions vied for control. The most radical leader was Robespierre, head of the Jacobins, a left-wing revolutionary group. He enforced strict loyalty to the Convention, initiating the Reign of Terror, a violent period from 1793 to 1794 during which over 12,000 people were guillotined.
In 1794, Robespierre’s own supporters, fearing execution, turned against him. The Convention voted for his arrest, and he was executed.
The Directory and the Rise of Napoleon
In 1794, many members of the middle class and bourgeoisie felt that the revolution had gone too far. The poor had become too revolutionary, posing a threat to the wealthy members of the Third Estate. The Convention was subsequently led by a moderate group, and later, an executive power of five members, known as the Directory, was established.
Napoleon and the Napoleonic Empire (1799-1815)
Early Career
Napoleon Bonaparte led successful campaigns against France’s enemies during the French Revolution, gaining immense popularity. He orchestrated a coup d’état on November 9, 1799 (18 Brumaire, Year VIII under the French Republican Calendar), installing himself as First Consul. Five years later, in 1804, the French Senate proclaimed him Emperor.
During the first decade of the 19th century, the French Empire engaged in a series of conflicts—the Napoleonic Wars—involving every major European power.