French Revolution to European Unifications
Causes of the Revolution
France faced a deep economic and social crisis, marked by crop failures and rising food prices. The bourgeoisie, enriched by economic growth, resented their political marginalization. The monarchy’s financial crisis, due to high spending and aid to American independence, led to a proposed tax reform that would compel the aristocracy to pay taxes.
Beginning of the Revolution: 1789
The revolution began with the aristocracy’s refusal to pay taxes, forcing Louis XVI to convene the Estates-General. The Third Estate demanded double representation and voting by head, leading to the formation of the National Assembly and a pledge to draft a constitution.
End of the Old Regime
The people of Paris stormed the Bastille, and anti-seigneurial revolts spread in the countryside. The National Constituent Assembly abolished feudal privileges and adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
Phases of the Revolution
The revolution progressed through phases: Constitutional Monarchy, supported by the conservative bourgeoisie; Democratic Republic, driven by radical bourgeoisie and popular sectors; and a more Bourgeois Republic, marking a return to conservative power.
Constitutional Monarchy
The 1791 constitution established a constitutional monarchy with separation of powers, national sovereignty, and legal equality, although with limited suffrage based on wealth. A Legislative Assembly was formed, creating a National Guard.
Political Options
The new regime faced opposition from the nobility, clergy, and popular sectors dissatisfied with limited suffrage and rising costs. Key revolutionary groups included the Girondins, Jacobins, and Cordeliers, supported by the sans-culottes.
Failure of Constitutional Monarchy
The royal family’s attempted escape and the war against Austria led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the proclamation of the republic.
Girondin Convention
The Girondins held power, called for universal male suffrage, and executed Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. The republic faced internal and external threats.
Jacobin Convention
The Jacobins seized power, establishing a constitution based on social democracy and universal suffrage. The Committee of Public Safety, led by Robespierre, implemented the Reign of Terror.
Fall of the Jacobins
The Terror and Jacobin dictatorship led to their downfall in the Thermidorian Reaction, with Robespierre and other leaders executed.
Bourgeois Republic (1794-1799)
The conservative bourgeoisie regained control, drafting a new constitution with limited suffrage. Napoleon Bonaparte’s coup ended the Directory and established the Consulate.
Napoleon: Consul to Emperor
Napoleon consolidated the revolution’s achievements, signed a concordat with the Church, and implemented administrative and legal reforms. He crowned himself emperor, backed by military successes.
Napoleonic Conquests
Napoleon’s conquests spread revolutionary ideas across Europe, but also fueled nationalist sentiments against French rule.
Fall of Napoleon
The Spanish uprising marked the decline of Napoleon’s empire. The Congress of Vienna aimed to restore absolutism and reshape Europe.
Europe in the Restoration
The Congress of Vienna restored monarchies and established the Holy Alliance. However, liberal and nationalist ideas persisted.
Liberalism
Liberalism emphasized individual rights, freedoms, and constitutional government with a representative parliament.
Nationalism
Nationalism advocated for the right of peoples to self-determination and sovereignty based on shared cultural ties.
Revolutions of 1820
Liberal uprisings were largely defeated, except for Greece’s independence from the Ottoman Empire and movements in Spanish American colonies.
Revolutions of 1830
Revolutions in France and Belgium established liberal monarchies. Uprisings in Poland were suppressed.
Spring of the Peoples (1848)
Revolutions across Europe sought democratic ideals, including universal suffrage and social equality. Most were suppressed, but liberal reforms and national movements gained momentum.
Unifications of Italy and Germany
Led by Piedmont and Prussia respectively, both unifications were achieved through armed conflict, with the bourgeoisie playing a key role.
Italy
Piedmont, under Cavour, led the unification, annexing Lombardy and later the southern states through Garibaldi’s efforts. Rome became the capital.
Germany
Prussia, led by Bismarck, unified Germany through wars, culminating in the proclamation of the German Empire.
Europe in the Late 19th Century
Despite apparent stability, absolutist regimes and national aspirations persisted in Austria. In Western Europe, the struggle for democracy and social rights continued.