French Revolution to European Unifications: 18th-19th Century
T.2: Liberalism and Nationalism
DLA 1.LS Revolution Causes
In 1789, France faced a deep economic and social crisis. Similar to 1760, rising food prices and other issues led to discontent. The bourgeoisie were dissatisfied with their political marginalization, as only the privileged could hold office and enjoy social recognition. Additionally, the monarchy was in a deep financial crisis due to high court costs. The proposed solution, tax reform, forced the aristocracy to pay taxes.
1.2 The Beginning of the Revolution: 1789
The French Revolution began with a revolt of the privileged aristocracy, who refused to pay taxes and demanded that Louis XVI convene the Estates General. The Estates General opened in Versailles in May 1789, chaired by the King and comprising the nobility, clergy, and the Third Estate. The Third Estate representatives demanded double representation and voting by head, introducing the idea of national sovereignty. Only part of the nobility accepted dual representation. Members of the Third Estate met on June 20 in a Paris jeu de paume (indoor tennis court) and formed the National Assembly.
2. Phases of the French Revolution (1)
After the creation of the National Assembly, France began transitioning to a liberal monarchy.
- Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792): The bourgeoisie aimed to reach an agreement with the King and the privileged to abolish the old regime and impose liberalism.
- Democratic Republic (1792-1794): Driven by the radical bourgeoisie, seeking a more profound democratic and egalitarian transformation.
- Bourgeois Republic (1794-1799): Marked the return to power of the conservative bourgeoisie, consolidating the dominance of property owners.
2.2 The Constitutional Monarchy
In 1789, the King accepted the new situation, and the National Assembly began reforms to transform France into a parliamentary monarchy. In 1791, a constitution embodying political liberalism ideals was promulgated, establishing direct elections and census suffrage, dividing citizens into active and passive. After the constitution’s approval, a Legislative Assembly was formed to enact new laws. To resolve the financial crisis, church-owned property was expropriated and sold to individuals, ensuring the maintenance of worship and a civil constitution of the clergy, separating church and state.
The Different Policy Options
The reforms of 1789-1791 satisfied bourgeois groups by granting them political rights and economic freedom. However, the new regime faced opposition from the clergy, nobility, and popular sectors dissatisfied with restricted suffrage and rising living costs. Key revolutionary groups included the Girondins, Jacobins, and Cordeliers.
2.3 The Failure of the Constitutional Monarchy
The royal family’s position weakened following their flight to Paris. The discredited monarch attempted to evade the revolutionary process. In 1792, the Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria. This created a climate of revolt among the sans-culottes, who stormed the royal palace, imprisoned the monarch, and proclaimed the republic in 1792.
5. The Europe of the Restoration
Victorious states met after Napoleon’s defeat between 1814 and 1815, led by Austrian Chancellor Metternich, at the Congress of Vienna. Decisions included the Holy Alliance (1815), a treaty of mutual assistance among European monarchs against liberal revolutions, asserting the right of military intervention. Despite the apparent return to the old regime, the ideas of the French Revolution spread across Europe. Liberalism and nationalism became the two forces challenging the restoration.
5.2 Liberalism
A political system based on individual rights and fundamental freedoms. Society should ensure these rights. The free individual is a citizen, and citizens collectively form the nation.
5.3 Nationalism
A political ideology asserting the right of peoples to decide on their sovereignty and defend themselves. It can be defined as a nation of individuals possessing cultural ties and a desire to live in common. Nationalisms aimed to align state and nation, regrouping members of a national community within the same borders.
6. Liberal and National Revolutions
The force of nationalism and liberalism was demonstrated in three major revolutionary waves from 1820, crumbling the restoration system configured at the Congress of Vienna.
6.1 The Revolutions of 1820
Liberal activists led uprisings in various countries to end absolutism and seize power through armed insurrection. These were defeated by the intervention of the Holy Alliance armies. Only in Greece, where liberal interests joined a strong patriotic movement, did an insurrection against the Ottoman Empire succeed. Greek independence was achieved in 1829 after a cruel war. Continental Spanish colonies in America also saw successful movements between 1808 and 1825, leading to independent regimes and new republics.
6.2 The Revolutions of 1830
A second revolutionary wave occurred in Western and Central Europe between 1829 and 1835, with greater impact. The movement began in France in July 1830, overthrowing the absolute monarch Charles X and proclaiming a liberal monarchy under Louis Philippe of Orléans. Belgium also achieved independence, establishing a liberal system. In 1831, a Polish independence revolt was severely repressed by Russia. In 1832, Britain achieved an expansion of political rights.
7. Unifications of Italy and Germany
Both unifications were led by the most developed areas (Piedmont and Prussia) and achieved through intense armed conflicts. The bourgeoisie became the ruling class, ensuring dominance but compromising with old privileged groups, resulting in conservative states.
Italy
Italy was divided into six states. Piedmont, led by the Savoy dynasty, favored unification. In 1859, Cavour started a war against Austria, annexing Lombardy. In 1861, the first Italian parliament proclaimed Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy. Veneto was annexed in 1866, and the Papal States in 1870.
Germany
Germany was divided into 36 states. Prussia led the unification, strengthening a customs union that included all German states except Austria. Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck directed victorious wars, uniting the states under the King of Prussia. After the victory at Sedan, the German Empire was proclaimed in 1871, with Wilhelm I as Kaiser.