From Abacus to Modern Computers: A History of Computing
1. From Abacus to the First Computers
The Abacus
The oldest calculating device, the abacus, gets its name from the Greek word “abakos,” meaning “flat.” Its origins date back to the 5th century BC. Composed of a set of wires with beads strung on them, it represented units, tens, and so on.
The Pascaline
Mathematician Blaise Pascal created the Pascaline, an arithmetical machine, to assist his father with calculations. Its operation relied on rotating gears, marked from 0 to 9, which advanced with each turn of a crank. It could only perform addition and subtraction.
The Leibniz Machine
More advanced than the Pascaline, the Leibniz machine could multiply, divide, and calculate square roots. It was based on the binary system. However, both machines faced limitations due to the pre-industrial era.
Babbage’s Analytical Engine
Charles Babbage, considered the father of the modern computer, designed the Analytical Engine. This entirely mechanical machine was intended to perform any arithmetic operation. It featured input and output mechanisms, memory, a control unit, and an arithmetic-logic unit. Unfortunately, it was never fully funded and remained unbuilt.
Hollerith’s Automatic System
Herman Hollerith developed a system using punched cards to conduct the census. Holes represented data like sex, age, and race. Cards were processed by a mechanism that read 60-80 cards per minute, significantly simplifying census calculations.
2. The First Generation of Computers
Early Prototypes
A German engineer built the first electromechanical, binary, and programmable computer, though it never functioned properly. He also created the first programming language. The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) was the first electronic digital computer.
The Mark I
IBM’s Mark I was the first large-scale computer. The Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (Mark I) was the first machine capable of automatically performing lengthy operations.
The ENIAC
Built at the University of Pennsylvania, the ENIAC was used exclusively by the military for ballistic and missile trajectory calculations. It could solve 5,000 additions and 360 multiplications per second.
The EDVAC
Built at the University of Manchester, the EDVAC’s advantage was its memory storage capacity. It can be considered the first true electronic digital computer.
The UNIVAC
Designed for general-purpose use, the UNIVAC could process alphanumeric data. Programming was complex, as it was done in machine language.
3. Second and Third Generations
The Second Generation
This generation was characterized by the use of transistors instead of vacuum tubes.
Early Storage Systems
Removable disks with a capacity of about 2 MB emerged.
Programming Languages
More advanced programming languages appeared, including:
- FORTRAN (scientific applications)
- COBOL (business and management)
- ALGOL (theoretical language)
- BASIC (easier programming)
- PL/1 (universal language)
The Third Generation
This generation saw the invention of the integrated circuit and significant software development.
The IBM 360 Series
The IBM 360 series familiarized the public with computers. Based on integrated circuits, they used the OS operating system and languages like FORTRAN, ALGOL, and COBOL.
4. The Fourth Generation
The Intel 4004 Microprocessor
The Intel 4004 continued the trend of integration and miniaturization. It could perform 60,000 operations on two binary numbers per second.
The 8080 Microprocessor and the Altair Computer
The 8080 microprocessor was a CPU on a single integrated circuit. It powered the Altair 8800, the first personal computer to generate significant interest among individuals and small businesses. The Altair lacked a keyboard and monitor and was programmed using toggle switches.
Hard Drives and Floppy Disks
Winchester hard drives became the standard storage device, with a capacity of 30 MB. Floppy disks, initially 5 ΒΌ inches and 110 KB, allowed for data and program storage and distribution.
Apple II
The Apple II was the first personal computer widely used in businesses.
IBM PC and MS-DOS
The IBM PC used the PC-DOS operating system, developed by IBM and Microsoft. Microsoft also distributed PC-DOS to other manufacturers as MS-DOS.
5. Computing Since 1981
The Popularization of the PC
Increased processing power, reduced size, and lower costs led to the widespread adoption of personal computers.
The Graphical Interface and Mouse
The Macintosh introduced the mouse and a graphical user interface. Microsoft released the first version of Windows. MacOS and Windows became the dominant operating systems.
Multimedia and Hypermedia
Multimedia tools enabled the combination of text, audio, and video on PCs. Hypermedia allowed users to explore information through various paths. These technologies transformed information consumption and interaction.
Hardware Evolution
Hardware saw improvements in speed, size, efficiency, capacity, and cost.
Notebooks, Tablet PCs, and PDAs
Laptops (1-3 kg), tablet PCs (a hybrid between laptops and PDAs), and PDAs (small and lightweight computers) emerged.
ZX Spectrum
The ZX Spectrum was the most popular home microcomputer of the 1980s.
6. History of the Internet
The Internet: A Network of Networks
A protocol is a set of rules that define data exchange between computers or programs. TCP/IP protocols are used by all networks on the internet.
New Possibilities of the Internet
The internet is a vast information repository and a large marketplace. It empowers minority groups and cultures, enables real-time medical consultations, facilitates data sharing for projects like the Human Genome Project, and allows astronomers to share data from telescopes worldwide.