From Dictatorship to Democracy: Spain’s Political Transformation

On November 20, 1975, Franco died. According to Spanish law, Prince Juan Carlos de Borbón was his successor, swearing allegiance to the National Movement’s Fundamental Principles two days later. His inaugural address, while cautious, hinted at change: omitting references to the civil war and the Movement, while emphasizing reconciliation, freedom, and regional recognition.

This marked the start of Spain’s transition, coinciding with similar shifts in Greece and Portugal. Within Spain, two factions emerged: hardliners, loyal to Franco’s regime, and reformists, advocating for gradual liberalization. Outside the regime, a growing opposition comprised moderate groups (monarchists, Christian Democrats, and Liberals) favoring a peaceful transition, and radical groups (PCE, PSOE, and clandestine unions) demanding a complete break.

The King confirmed Arias Navarro as Prime Minister. Their relationship was strained. Arias Navarro’s cabinet, a mix of military figures, Franco loyalists, and some reformists, made minimal changes. While there were laws regarding association and assembly, and some clemency for political prisoners, no real progress was made towards political liberalization.

By April 1976, the situation deteriorated. The Vitoria strike resulted in worker deaths at the hands of police, and the Montejurra events saw clashes between Carlist factions. The King, during a US trip, expressed his intent to establish democracy, indirectly criticizing Arias Navarro, who resigned on July 1, 1976.

On July 3, 1976, Adolfo Suárez, a young bureaucrat, became Prime Minister. Facing initial resistance, he formed a cabinet of young politicians. Suárez proposed a gradual transition to democracy, “from law to law.” He legalized unions, faced military opposition, and dissolved the National Movement.

The Political Reform Act (LRP), developed by Torcuato Fernández Miranda, established universal suffrage and a bicameral parliament. Despite resistance, Suárez skillfully secured its approval, marking the end of Franco’s Cortes.

The opposition, initially skeptical, gradually moved towards an agreed reform. Suárez engaged with opposition leaders, and the Communist Party, though illegal, operated with some tolerance. The PSOE held its congress in Madrid, with Felipe González adopting a moderate stance.

This period saw intense demonstrations and strikes, demanding amnesty and regional autonomy. The government granted pardons, but full amnesty came later. ETA’s continued attacks hindered democratization, while far-left groups like GRAPO engaged in kidnappings and killings.

The extreme right, linked to Franco’s apparatus, targeted democratic institutions. The killing of labor lawyers by right-wing gunmen sparked massive protests, but remained peaceful, contributing to the PCE’s recognition. The Church distanced itself from the regime, while the military largely remained resistant to change.

The LRP, approved by referendum, paved the way for the legalization of political parties. Parties across the spectrum emerged, including Fraga Iribarne’s People’s Alliance, Suárez’s Union of Democratic Center (UCD), and the PSOE. The legalization of the Communist Party, a significant step, saw the Communists accept the monarchy.

Suárez initiated the process of regional autonomy, starting with Catalonia, where Josep Tarradellas returned from exile. The Basque case was more complex due to ETA’s terrorism. The process, while hurried, addressed nationalist demands.

The 1977 general elections resulted in a UCD victory, followed by the PSOE. This established a two-party system, with the UCD and PSOE dominating. The Cortes began drafting a democratic constitution, based on consensus among parties.

The Constitution, influenced by European models, established a pluralist state with a parliamentary monarchy and a market economy. Controversial aspects included regional autonomy, with the PNV abstaining on the indivisibility of Spanish sovereignty.

The Constitution defined a non-denominational state, while acknowledging the importance of Catholicism. It incorporated liberal, socialist, and Christian humanist principles. Fundamental rights and duties were outlined, including individual liberties, political participation, and economic and social rights.

The Constitution established a system of guarantees to protect these rights, including the Ombudsman. It defined the roles of the Crown, Parliament, Government, and the judiciary. The Constitutional Court was established as the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution.

The territorial organization of the state was a complex issue. The Constitution recognized the autonomy of regions, while maintaining the unity of Spain. The process for gaining autonomy varied for historical communities like Catalonia and the Basque Country.

Suárez’s second term focused on economic challenges. The oil crisis had led to inflation and unemployment. The Moncloa Pacts, signed in 1977, were trilateral agreements between the government, businesses, and unions. They aimed to stabilize the economy and establish a framework for labor relations.

The Pacts helped reduce social conflict and allowed for a focus on the Constitution. Tax reform was undertaken, with a focus on direct taxation. However, economic challenges persisted.

The UCD won the 1979 elections, but with a reduced majority. The PSOE gained ground. Suárez’s government faced internal divisions and external pressure. He resigned in 1981.

During the inauguration of Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo, an attempted coup took place on February 23, 1981. Led by Lt. Col. Tejero, Civil Guards seized Congress. Simultaneously, military figures in Valencia and Madrid rebelled. The King’s televised address denounced the coup, and it ultimately failed.

Calvo Sotelo’s government faced challenges, including the divorce law, university autonomy, and nationalist tensions. The LOAPA, aimed at harmonizing autonomy, was contested by nationalists. The “toxic syndrome” and the “Almería case” further complicated matters.

Despite these challenges, Calvo Sotelo secured Spain’s entry into NATO and pursued integration into the EEC. He called early elections. This period saw the end of censorship, the decline of the Church’s influence, and the rise of local cultures. It also witnessed a new rural exodus and the emergence of drug problems.