From Scientific Revolution to Global Change: 16th-20th Centuries

Posted on Dec 14, 2024 in History

1. Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

1.1 Scientific Revolution and the Scientific Method

• Definition: A period in the 16th-17th centuries where traditional beliefs were replaced with new ideas based on observation, experimentation, and evidence.
• Key Contributions:
  • Heliocentric Model:
    • Nicolaus Copernicus (Poland):
      • Proposed that the Sun, not Earth, is the center of the universe.
      • Work: On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies (1543).
      • Published shortly before his death to avoid persecution by the Catholic Church.
    • Galileo Galilei (Italy):
      • Used telescopes to confirm Copernicus’ theory.
      • Work: Starry Messenger (1610).
      • Conflict with the Catholic Church:
        • Galileo’s findings contradicted the Church’s geocentric model.
        • He was tried by the Inquisition and forced to recant his ideas; spent the rest of his life under house arrest.
• Scientific Method: A systematic approach to inquiry.
  • Developed by:
    • Francis Bacon (England): Promoted inductive reasoning: experimentation leads to practical knowledge.
    • René Descartes (France): Advocated deductive reasoning: doubt everything until proven. His principle, “I think, therefore I am”, emphasized reason.
• Isaac Newton (England):
  • Unified the scientific revolution with his discoveries in physics and mathematics.
  • Key Idea: Law of Universal Gravitation — Every object in the universe attracts every other object, based on mass and distance.
• Medical Advances:
  • Andreas Vesalius (Flanders): Dissected human corpses, disproving outdated anatomy theories.
  • Work: On the Structure of the Human Body (1543).
• Chemistry Advances:
  • Robert Boyle (Ireland):
    • Proposed matter is made of small particles.
    • Formulated Boyle’s Law (relationship between gas pressure, volume, and temperature).

1.2 Relation Between Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

• Scientific Revolution → Enlightenment:
  • Encouraged reason, evidence, and questioning authority.
  • Scientific principles were applied to society, politics, and ethics.
• Differences:
  • Scientific Revolution: Focused on understanding the physical world.
  • Enlightenment: Applied reason to societal structures, advocating for progress and equality.

1.3 Main Thinkers of the Enlightenment

1.4 Key Enlightenment Concepts

• Nature of Man: Philosophers debated whether humans were inherently good or selfish.
  • Hobbes: Naturally selfish.
  • Rousseau: Naturally good but corrupted by society.
• Social Contract: Agreement where people consent to governance in exchange for protection of rights.
• Best Way to Govern:
  • Locke: Representative democracy.
  • Montesquieu: Separation of powers.
  • Hobbes: Absolute monarchy.
• Economic Principles: Adam Smith advocated for laissez-faire economics (minimal government interference).

1.5 Causes and Consequences of Enlightenment

• Causes:
  • Influence of Scientific Revolution.
  • Spread of literacy and printing.
• Consequences:
  • Inspired political revolutions (American, French, Latin American).
  • Encouraged secularism and the separation of Church and state.

1.6 Elements Challenged from Ancien Régime

• Divine Right of Kings: Replaced with the idea of popular sovereignty.
• Feudal Privileges: Advocated equality before the law.
• Religious Authority: Promoted secular governance and freedom of belief.

2. Liberal Revolutions

2.1 American Revolution

• Causes:
  • Taxation without representation (e.g., Stamp Act).
  • British mercantilist policies restricted colonial trade.
• Key Events:
  • Declaration of Independence (1776).
  • Battles: Lexington and Concord, Saratoga, Yorktown.
• Key Figures:
  • Thomas Jefferson: Drafted the Declaration of Independence.
  • George Washington: Commander of the Continental Army.
  • James Madison: Father of the Constitution.
• Key Outcomes:
  • U.S. became an independent republic.
  • Constitution (1787): Created a federal government with checks and balances.
  • Bill of Rights: Guaranteed individual freedoms (e.g., freedom of speech, religion).

2.2 French Revolution

• Causes:
  • Social inequality (Three Estates system).
  • Financial crisis due to debt and poor harvests.
• Key Events:
  • Storming of the Bastille (1789).
  • Reign of Terror under Robespierre (1793-1794).
• Key Outcomes:
  • End of monarchy; rise of Napoleon.
  • Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen: Affirmed equality and freedom.

2.3 Napoleonic Era

• Napoleonic Code: Legal system emphasizing equality before the law.
• Congress of Vienna (1815): Restored balance of power in Europe.

2.4 Latin American Independence

• Causes:
  • Inspired by Enlightenment and French Revolution.
  • Economic exploitation by colonial powers.
• Key Figures:
  • Simón Bolívar: The “Liberator” of northern South America.
  • José de San Martín: Led independence movements in the south.
• Outcomes:
  • Formation of independent nations (e.g., Colombia, Argentina).

3. Nation Building

3.1 American Civil War

• Causes:
  • Disagreements over slavery between Northern (anti-slavery) and Southern (pro-slavery) states.
  • Key Issues:
    • Missouri Compromise (1820): Regulated slavery in western territories.
    • Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854): Allowed territories to decide on slavery, leading to violent conflicts.
  • Economic differences: Industrial North vs. Agricultural South.
  • Abraham Lincoln’s election (1860): Opposed the spread of slavery.
• Key Events:
  • Fort Sumter (1861): Start of the war.
  • Emancipation Proclamation (1863): Freed slaves in Confederate states.
  • Gettysburg (1863): Turning point in favor of the Union.
• Consequences:
  • Abolition of slavery (13th Amendment).
  • Strengthened federal government over states’ rights.
• Key Concepts:
  • Monroe Doctrine (1823): Opposed European interference in the Americas.
  • Manifest Destiny: Justified U.S. expansion westward, often at the expense of Native Americans.

3.2 German Unification

• Causes:
  • Desire to unify German-speaking states under Prussia.
  • Nationalism and shared cultural identity.
• Key Figures:
  • Otto von Bismarck: Prime Minister of Prussia; architect of unification.
  • King Wilhelm I: First Emperor of unified Germany.
• Key Events:
  • Wars:
    • Danish War (1864): Gained Schleswig-Holstein.
    • Austro-Prussian War (1866): Established Prussia as dominant.
    • Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871): United Germany under Prussian leadership.
• Consequences:
  • Creation of the German Empire (1871).
  • Rise of militarism in Europe.
• Concept:
  • Realpolitik: Practical, power-driven politics used by Bismarck.

3.3 Italian Unification

• Causes:
  • Nationalism and desire to unite fragmented Italian states.
  • Decline of Austrian control in Northern Italy.
• Key Figures:
  • Giuseppe Garibaldi: Military leader; led the Red Shirts.
  • Giuseppe Mazzini: Ideological leader; promoted nationalism.
  • Count Camillo di Cavour: Prime Minister of Sardinia; used diplomacy.
• Key Events:
  • Unification under the Kingdom of Sardinia (1861).
  • Annexation of Venice (1866) and Rome (1870).
• Concept:
  • Negative Integration: Focused on opposition to external powers (Austria, France).

4. Industrial Revolution

4.1 Causes and Characteristics

• Causes:
  • Agricultural Revolution: Increased food production.
  • Innovations: Steam engine, spinning jenny, power loom.
  • Abundant coal and iron resources.
• Characteristics:
  • Social: Rise of urbanization; creation of working and middle classes.
  • Demographic: Population growth due to improved living conditions.
  • Environmental: Pollution, deforestation, and overuse of resources.
• Consequences:
  • Growth of capitalist economies.
  • Development of infrastructure (railroads, factories).
  • Poor working conditions, leading to reforms.

4.2 Workers’ Movements

• Luddite Movement: Workers destroyed machinery threatening their jobs.
• Chartism: Advocated for voting rights and political reforms in England.
• Feminist Movements: Advocated for women’s suffrage and workplace rights (e.g., Suffragettes).
• Marxism: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels proposed communism as an alternative to capitalism (The Communist Manifesto).

5. Imperialism

5.1 Key Characteristics of Imperialism

• Expansion of European powers into Africa, Asia, and the Americas.
• Driven by:
  • Industrial needs for raw materials and markets.
  • Nationalism and competition between empires.
  • Ideologies such as Social Darwinism (belief in racial superiority).

5.2 Examples of Clashes and Cooperation

• Clashes:
  • Zulu Resistance (South Africa): Led by Shaka Zulu against British expansion.
  • Sepoy Rebellion (India): Revolt against British East India Company.
• Cooperation:
  • Spheres of influence in China (e.g., British trade agreements).

5.3 Case Studies

• British Imperialism: Colonized India; implemented economic reforms but exploited local industries (Jewel in the Crown).
• French Imperialism: Established colonies in Africa (Algeria) and Indochina.
• German Imperialism: Late entrant; colonized parts of Africa (Namibia, Tanzania).
• Belgian Imperialism: Exploited Congo for rubber, infamous for brutality under King Leopold II.
• American Imperialism: Acquired Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico after Spanish-American War (1898).
• Japanese Imperialism: Modernized rapidly; annexed Korea and expanded into Manchuria.

6. Historia de México (in Spanish)

6.1 Independencia de México (1810-1821)

• Causas: Desigualdad social, influencia de Revoluciones Americana y Francesa.
• Eventos clave:
  • Grito de Dolores (1810).
  • Consumación de la independencia (1821).

6.2 México Independiente (1821-1857)

• Debate Conservadores vs. Liberales:
  • Conservadores: Monarquía, influencia de la Iglesia.
  • Liberales: República federal, secularización.
• Intervenciones extranjeras:
  • Guerra México-EE.UU. (1846-1848): Pérdida de territorio.
  • Intervención Francesa (1838).

6.3 Guerra de Reforma (1857-1860)

• Lucha entre conservadores y liberales por la Constitución de 1857.

6.4 Segunda Intervención Francesa (1862-1867)

• Batalla de Puebla (1862): Triunfo contra los franceses.
• Fin del Imperio de Maximiliano (1867).

6.5 Restauración Liberal y Porfiriato (1867-1910)

• Periodo de estabilidad bajo Benito Juárez.
• Porfirio Díaz: Industrialización, pero desigualdad social.