Functionalism in Anthropology: A Comprehensive Overview
Functionalism in Anthropology
Introduction
In anthropology, functionalism focuses on the role of social factors rather than their form. Social form refers to observable aspects of a civilization that can vary across societies. When elements of civilization are transferred, their form and meaning can become dissociated. Functionalists aim to assign a function to every social element, studying society in terms of its organization and operation.
Key Figures in Functionalism
Malinowski is considered the founder of anthropological functionalism. Radcliffe-Brown also contributed significantly to the theory, which was later developed by M. Strong. Jean Poirier highlighted the central idea of functionalism: understanding society through the interrelationships between its parts and their functions. He emphasized the importance of relationships between social facts, the whole society, and the external environment.
Malinowski’s Typology of Needs
Malinowski proposed a typology of needs, including:
- Primary needs: Biological needs, such as the need for food.
- Derived needs: Needs specific to human society, such as education and language.
- Synthetic needs: Motivations related to the human psyche, such as ideals and religion.
The concept of human needs was later contested.
Functionalism as Doctrine and Method
Modern functionalist theory can be seen as both a doctrine and a method. As a doctrine, it posits that utility is the ultimate purpose of society and culture. As a method, it emphasizes describing facts in context and interpreting them in relation to the whole. Functionalists believe that a social fact or institution reveals its purpose (raison d’être) through its functional relationships with other elements of society.
Criticisms of Functionalism
Functionalism has been criticized for its limited consideration of dysfunction and social change. Critics argue that social representations, which can change based on circumstances, are powerful drivers of social action. Dynamic and Marxist anthropologists challenged functionalism’s anti-historical perspective, arguing that societies are characterized by internal conflicts and tensions, not harmonious arrangements. Levi-Strauss famously stated: “Say that a society functions is a truism, but to say that everything works in a society is absurd.”
Contemporary Functionalism
Functionalism has evolved over time. In practice, functional analysis involves examining social facts in relation to other facts within a totality. However, this totality is not necessarily fully structured. The notion of function is now understood as a relationship of interdependence, where relations between facts do not represent deterministic laws of operation.