Galicia from 1936 to 1976: Socioeconomic and Cultural Changes
Galicia Between 1936 and 1976: Socioeconomic and Cultural Transformations
Socioeconomic Changes
The economic policies implemented by the Franco regime after the war prioritized the interests of the landowning oligarchy. This led to the marginalization of Portugal’s agricultural model, hindering modernization and causing stagnation tied to the industrial recession. As a result, Galicia experienced a process of re-ruralization.
In the 1950s, the construction of hydroelectric dams on the Sil and Miño rivers spurred the expansion of electricity and the creation of a lending bank. From the 1960s to the 1970s, the economy transitioned towards a Western capitalist model. This involved attracting foreign investors, promoting tourism, encouraging foreign exchange from European immigrants, and industrializing the coast. These changes led to urbanization and a significant migration of the rural population, with Galicia remaining a supplier of raw materials and labor.
From the 1970s onward, the population gradually integrated into the new economic landscape. However, the limited educational and media presence in the Galician language contributed to a decline in its use.
Political Landscape
The military coup against the Republic aimed to suppress any expression of Galician nationalism. Many Galician intellectuals and activists were forced into exile, while others awaited the triumph of Western democracies. In Buenos Aires, the Council of Galicia successfully advocated for the adoption of the Statute of Autonomy for the Republican government-in-exile assembled in Mexico.
The consolidation of the Franco regime led to a decline in Galician nationalist politics. Cultural activities became the primary avenue for expressing Galician identity, with Ramón Piñeiro, a prominent publisher of Editorial Galaxia, playing a leading role.
While socioeconomic changes initially broadened the base of support for the dictatorship, the revitalization of the labor movement resulted in significant mobilizations in Vigo and Ferrol. In the 1960s, cultural strategies gained prominence, and new organizations emerged that linked nationalism with leftist ideologies.
Post-war Galician Culture
Galician culture experienced a period of continuity through the activities of prominent figures in exile, such as Castelao, Blanco Amor, Luis Seoane, and Ramón Suárez Picón. They contributed to both political and literary spheres.
In the 1950s, a cultural revival began to take shape. The first Galician publishing houses emerged, including Bibliófilos Gallegos, Colección Benito Soto in Vigo, and Monterrey, later renamed Castrelos. Ramón Piñeiro, Isla Couto, Fernández del Riego, Celso Emilio Ferreiro, and García-Sabell, associated with the newspaper La Noche founded in Vigo, established Editorial Galaxia, which became a central hub for Galicianism.
Other cultural initiatives included the magazine Antífona da Cantiga, followed by publications like Grial, Atlántida, and Economía de Galicia.
Post-war Galician Poetry
Various poetic trends emerged in post-war Galicia. Hylozoism and imaxinismo, prevalent before the Civil War, were represented by poets like Aquilino Iglesia Alvariño, Díaz Castro, and Cunqueiro. Neotrobadorismo, characterized by a revival of medieval troubadour poetry, was prominent in the works of Cunqueiro and Xosé María Álvarez Blázquez.
Neovirxilianismo, influenced by classical authors and humanistic training, found expression in the poetry of Iglesia Alvariño and Uxío Novoneyra, who explored telluric and existentialist themes.
In the 1950s and 1960s, an intimate current emerged, focusing on self-analysis, religious dimensions, the passage of time, and metapoetic reflection. Prominent poets in this vein included Luis Pimentel, Cunqueiro, Novoneyra, Iglesia Alvariño, and Luz Pozo Garza.
With the publication of Longa noite de pedra (Long Night of Stone), Celso Emilio Ferreiro ushered in a new era of social realism in Galician poetry. Inspired by the historical context and the works of Luís Seoane and Lorenzo Varela, other poets like Méndez Ferrín, Xosé Luís García, and Manuel María also embraced this style.
The Generation of 1936
This generation of poets, born around the same year, experienced the profound impact of the Civil War. Some were members of the Federación de Mocedades Galeguistas (Federation of Galician Youth), while others belonged to the Federación Universitaria Escolar (University Student Federation). Their experiences shaped their poetic voices, particularly those who went into exile.
Voices of Exile
These poets sought to raise awareness and preserve Galician identity through their literary works.
- Luís Seoane: His early work, Fardel de eisiliado (Exile’s Bundle), marked the beginning of his social realist poetry, which aimed to reconstruct the memory of emigration from a critical perspective. In Na fogueira (In the Bonfire) and As cicatrices (The Scars), he addressed themes of exile and emigration. His poem “Nestas figuras do cadalso de Rubido…” (In these figures of Rubido’s scaffold…) reflects on the experience of exile and the longing for return.
- Lorenzo Varela: He began his literary career with Catro poemas para catro gravados (Four Poems for Four Engravings), accompanying Luís Seoane’s album of woodcuts. These poems celebrated historical figures in an epic tone. In Lonxe (Far Away), he expressed a forceful epic exaltation of anti-Franco guerrilla heroes and a pessimistic view of the lack of land and the hardships faced by the Galician people.
- Eduardo Blanco Amor: His pre-war work, Romances galegos (Galician Romances), was influenced by avant-garde movements. In his post-war poetry collection Cancioneiro (Songbook), he expressed themes of longing and exile, as seen in the poem “Ausencia nas escaldeiradas…” (Absence on the Stairways…).
- Emilio Pita: His poetry often referenced the fallen heroes of the Galician cause, as exemplified in Jacobusland.
- Florencio Delgado Gurriarán: His work Galicia infinda (Unending Galicia) reflected the experiences of exile and the enduring spirit of the Galician people.
Voices from the Interior
These poets remained in Galicia and navigated the challenges of the post-war period.
- Fermín Bouza-Brey: His work Nao senlleira (Unfurrowed Ship) presented a lyrical and folk-inspired perspective on the Galician landscape.
- Xosé María Álvarez Blázquez: O cancioneiro de Monfero (The Songbook of Monfero) showcased a playful and humorous approach to poetry, drawing inspiration from medieval troubadour traditions (neotrobadorismo).
- Luis Pimentel: Sombra do aire na herba (Shadow of the Air in the Grass) explored intimate themes and personal experiences with a delicate and impressionistic style. His poem “Andaina” (Walk) reflected on the bilingual nature of Galician identity.
- Xosé María Díaz Castro: His poetry delved into existential and religious themes with a profound and introspective tone. In Nimbos (Nimbus) and Penélope, he explored the individual and collective dimensions of Galician reality, expressing skepticism and a search for transcendental meaning.
- Aquilino Iglesia Alvariño: His poetic trajectory encompassed a wide range of themes and styles. In his early works, such as Señardá (Longing) and Corazón ao vento (Heart to the Wind), he was influenced by Portuguese poets like Teixeira de Pascoaes and Noriega Varela, as well as Spanish imaxinismo and neo-popularism. Cómaros verdes (Green Brambles) showcased his mastery of free verse and his connection to the Galician landscape. Día a día (Day by Day) presented a more personal and introspective perspective, marked by loneliness and affliction. Solitude ao sol (Solitude in the Sun) and Nenias (Laments) explored themes of time, death, and the permanence of poetry with an austere and reflective tone.
- Ricardo Carballo Calero: His poetry was characterized by a tension between classical forms and linguistic innovation. In Anxo da terra (Angel of the Land) and Poemas pendurados dun cabelo (Poems Hanging from a Hair), he explored existential themes with a concise and evocative style.
- Álvaro Cunqueiro: His work often explored Galician culture through a bilingual approach. Dona do corpo delgado (Lady of the Slender Body) and Herba aquí e acolá (Grass Here and There) showcased his playful intertextuality, culturalism, and ability to weave humor and sadness into his poetic narratives.
- Celso Emilio Ferreiro: His poetry can be divided into two main strands: social poetry and the recreation of love lyrics. In his social poetry, exemplified by Viaxe ao país dos ananos (Journey to the Land of the Dwarfs), Cancións de escarnio e maldicir (Songs of Scorn and Curse), and Longa noite de pedra, he addressed social injustices, political oppression, and the defense of the Galician language. His love lyrics, as seen in Onde o mundo se chama Celanova (Where the World is Called Celanova), evoked themes of loss, longing, and the passage of time.
The Continuation: Poets of the 1950s and Beyond
This generation of poets, born after the Civil War, experienced a period of isolation and limited opportunities to use the Galician language. Their poetry often reflected this context, exploring themes of anxiety, doubt, and the search for identity.
- Antón Tovar: His work, including Arredor de min (Around Me), expressed anxiety, sadness, and existential questioning.
- Luz Pozo Garza: O paxaro na boca (The Bird in the Mouth) explored themes of love and landscape, influenced by Luis Pimentel. Her later works, such as Últimas palabras (Last Words), Concerto de outono (Autumn Concert), and Vida secreta de Rosalía (Secret Life of Rosalía), delved into symbolic and aesthetic realms.
- Manuel Cuña Novás: Frauta na noite (Flute in the Night) showed influences of hylozoism and neotrobadorismo. Fabulario novo (New Fabulary) presented a conceptual and hermetic approach to beauty. His later works, such as Escolma de sombra (Selection of Shadow), explored surrealist themes and existential anxieties.
The Generation of the 1950s or the Minerva Parties
This generation witnessed the emergence of new poetic groups and voices that sought to revitalize Galician literature and address the social and political realities of their time.
- Compostela Group: This group included poets like Xohán Torres, whose works O cráter (The Crater) and Tempo de mar (Time of Sea) explored symbolic landscapes and existential themes.
- Brais Pinto Group: Influenced by existentialism and the”School of Darkness” this group’s poetry was characterized by anxiety, pessimism, and a critical engagement with social issues. Prominent members included:
- Xosé Luís Méndez Ferrín: His works, such as Vozes no vento (Voices in the Wind), Antoloxía popular (Popular Anthology), and Con pólvora e magnolias (With Gunpowder and Magnolias), explored themes of Galician identity, social injustice, and historical memory.
- Manuel María: His poetry ranged from introspective reflections on religious themes and the Galician landscape to social satire and political critique. His works, such as Morrendo cada día (Dying Every Day) and Documentos persoais (Personal Documents), showcased his versatility and commitment to social justice.
- Bernardino Graña: His poetry often focused on the maritime world and the social and human realities of coastal communities. His works, such as Profecía do mar (Prophecy of the Sea) and Vigo e Cangas non se ven (Vigo and Cangas Cannot See Each Other), explored themes of migration, loss, and the relationship between humans and the sea.
- Uxío Novoneyra: His poetry was deeply rooted in the Galician landscape, particularly the Courel region. His works, such as Os eidos (The Fields), Elegía do Courel (Elegy of the Courel), and Os poemas caligráficos (The Calligraphic Poems), blended neo-popularist, neotrobadorist, and hylozoist influences with a profound sense of cosmic integration and a unique linguistic style.
- Darío Xohán Cabana: His poetry explored themes of love, nature, and Galician identity with a lyrical and evocative style. His works, such as O tempo na escaleira (Time on the Staircase) and Torre na néboa (Tower in the Mist), showcased his ability to create vivid imagery and explore the complexities of human experience.