Generation of ’98: Literary Modernism in Spain
Formal Renewal: Style
A generational language characterized by simplicity and sobriety, emphasizing accuracy and expressiveness over prosaic realism. The value of castizo is manifested in the use of archaic words, known as terruñeras (traditional). The authors used a lexicon to express subjective assessments and inner feelings, because the landscape is not what the eyes see, but what the heart feels (landscapes of the soul).
Authors and Works
The Generation of ’98 favored lyrical modernism, utilizing the essay and the novel, though not exclusively. They created major innovations.
The Essay
Based on the model articles of Larra, the writers of ’98 modernized the genre, using it to express their ideas.
- Miguel de Unamuno expressed his views on Spain (purity, history, Don Quixote), and explored themes of a man’s life (immortality, self-identity, the struggle between reason and faith) in works such as The Tragic Sense of Life and The Agony of Christianity.
- Azorín‘s essays explored themes of eternal recurrence, idealizing the past, finding beauty in the commonplace, and examining the essentials of simple, everyday things through readings of the classics (Castilla, Al margen de los clásicos).
- Ramiro Maeztu‘s essays show a radical ideological transformation, from progressive revolutionary to Catholic traditionalist (To Another Spain, Defense of Hispanidad). His essay Don Quixote, Don Juan, and Celestina analyzes three great myths of Spanish literature.
The Novel
The novel underwent a major renovation, presenting various forms.
- Pío Baroja‘s novels are open-ended, with action, repression, and unclear conclusions, often grouped into series. His dynamic style features quick action, brief descriptions, lively dialogue, and a constant parade of characters. His favorite characters are men of action and frustrated misfits operating on the margins of society. His settings include the Madrid underworld and the Basque Country. His works, often grouped into trilogies, include The Struggle for Life, The Tree of Knowledge, Zalacain the Adventurer, and Memoirs of a Man of Action.
- Unamuno renewed the genre with the nívola, prioritizing reflection over action. His narratives are sparse, with minimal description and emphasis on dialogue. His characters constantly grapple with death and faith; they are called agonists. His novels have open structures, allowing for multiple interpretations and reader participation (Mist, San Manuel Bueno, Mártir).
- Azorín‘s novels continued his exploration of philosophical reflections on time (Will, Antonio Azorín).
- Valle-Inclán, though part of the Generation of ’98, created the esperpento, a grotesque style offering a critical vision of reality through distortion. His novels include Tirano Banderas (satirizing dictatorship) and The Iberian Circle (satirizing the reign of Elizabeth II).
Poetry
Key poets include:
- Unamuno‘s poetry reflects the themes of his other works (religion, Spain, landscapes), revealing his philosophical concerns. Stylistically, he juxtaposed contrasting resources and played with concepts (Poetry, Songbook).
- Antonio Machado, the quintessential poet of ’98, is known for Campos de Castilla, which uses a sober expression to reflect on the backward situation of Castile and Spain. The collection includes poems on the landscape and people of Castile-Soria, intimate poems about love and loss, and proverbs and songs reflecting philosophical and social concerns.
Theater
Key playwrights include:
- Unamuno‘s plays, though not successful with audiences, raise familiar themes, with minimal action and emphasis on dialogue (Phaedra, The Other).
- Azorín‘s innovative theater used symbolism and realism, with an obsessive focus on time (The Invisible).
- Ramón María del Valle-Inclán, the most representative figure in theater, created the esperpento technique, offering a bitter denunciation of contemporary Spanish society through distortion. His works include Luces de Bohemia (a critical vision of a corrupt and violent society) and Martes de Carnaval (a trilogy that satirizes Spanish myths).