Generation of ’98: Spain’s Literary & Cultural Reform
The Generation of ’98
The catastrophe of 1898 spurred a spirit of regeneration in Spain, impacting its literature. A group of young writers, known as the Generation of ’98, emerged seeking to reform Spanish culture and literature. This group, concurrent with the Modernismo movement (though some authors participated in both), significantly influenced Spanish literature, especially in the early 20th century. Key figures include Antonio Machado, Ramón María del Valle-Inclán, Miguel de Unamuno, Pío Baroja, Azorín, and Ramiro de Maeztu.
Genres
Poetry: Represented by Antonio Machado and Miguel de Unamuno, their poetry is austere, moving away from excessive Modernist rhetoric. It possesses profound depth, often featuring Castile as a protagonist and incorporating religious themes. Machado’s Campos de Castilla is a summit of this poetic style.
Essay: A fundamental genre for these authors to express their intellectual ideas and thoughts. They were great thinkers representative of their time, with Miguel de Unamuno being a prime example.
Theater: The early 20th century saw artistic renewal in theater. Among these writers, Valle-Inclán championed the renewal of theatrical language. He created the esperpento, a grotesque and distorted way of seeing and portraying reality. While not initially popular, his work, including Luces de Bohemia, is now considered a historical masterpiece.
Novel: All of the writers, except Machado, produced notable novels in diverse styles. Pío Baroja’s novels are austere in expression, prioritizing clear narrative action. His works range from adventure stories like Zalacaín el Aventurero to social novels like La Lucha por la Vida and intellectual novels like El Árbol de la Ciencia. Azorín’s novels are intellectual, with a complex style and austere language, devoid of action. Unamuno’s novels, perhaps the most complex, are intellectual explorations where he delves into his personal struggles and philosophical problems in an innovative way. His crowning achievements include Niebla and San Manuel Bueno, Mártir.
Themes
- Spain: Concern for Spain is a fundamental theme.
- Castile: They believed that the solution to Spain’s crisis lay in the essence of what it meant to be Spanish, often focusing on Castile.
- History: They were deeply interested in history, particularly the Middle Ages, believing it held the key to understanding Spain’s essence and its potential for development. Unamuno’s concept of “intrahistoria” explored how ordinary people lived through historical moments.
Antonio Machado
Born in Seville in 1875 at the Palacio de las Dueñas, Machado’s grandfather, a professor at the University of Seville, studied Andalusian folklore, an influence that would be important for Antonio. His grandfather was part of the Institución Libre de Enseñanza, and Antonio was educated within that environment. When his grandfather was transferred to the Central University of Madrid, the family relocated. After the deaths of his grandfather and father, the family faced economic hardship and came into contact with Madrid’s bohemian circles. Machado took on various jobs to alleviate their financial problems. In 1899, he traveled to Paris, improving his French language skills. While he didn’t complete university, he became a high school French teacher. In 1907, he moved to Soria to teach at the Instituto de Soria. There, he discovered Castile, met Leonor Izquierdo, and married her. He received a scholarship to study at the Collège de France in Paris. Upon arriving in Paris, Leonor fell ill with tuberculosis. They returned to Soria, but she died in August 1912, deeply affecting Machado. He left Soria for Baeza, where he reconnected with his Andalusian roots and encountered social injustices that would influence his poetry. He resided there until 1918, then moved to Segovia, where he taught French for many years. He found a second love, whom he called Guiomar, and became involved in the Asociación de Amigos de la República, a group of intellectuals advocating for a republic. During the Spanish Civil War, he actively worked to prevent the Nationalist victory. He remained in Madrid until February 1939, then moved to Barcelona and crossed the border into France. He died in Collioure, France, shortly after his mother.