Generation of ’98: Unamuno, Machado, and the Spanish Crisis
The Generation of ’98 and Religion
Unamuno’s views on religion varied significantly within the Generation of ’98.
Unamuno and Machado: Literary Pillars
Miguel de Unamuno
Unamuno, a highly respected figure within the Generation of ’98, captivated his contemporaries with his complex personality, profound thinking, and passionate style. His work, deeply rooted in philosophical concerns, maintains its literary value. A constant theme throughout his life and work is the fear of death, the desire for eternal life, and the anguished search for God. Unamuno was also deeply concerned about the state of Spain, analyzing the factors that led to its decline. His focus extended to the Castilian landscape and its people, famously stating, “It hurts Spain, Spanish I, Spanish by birth, education, body, spirit, language and even of profession or trade, especially Spanish and foremost!”.
Unamuno’s writing style is purposeful, direct, and robust, prioritizing accuracy and impact over elegance. His passionate tone and unordered arguments reflect his desire to express his rich inner world and convince his readers. His frequent use of synonyms emphasizes the complexity of his thoughts.
Unamuno’s extensive literary contributions span various genres:
- Novels: Exploring personal struggles like the thirst for immortality, the tragic sense of life, and the conflict between reason and faith. Key works include Aunt Tula (1921), Abel Sánchez (1917), San Manuel Bueno, Martyr (1931), and Fog (1914), which marked the beginning of his nivolas – presentations of human passions within disconnected landscapes.
- Poetry: Revealing his profound religious concerns. Notable works include El Cristo de Velazquez, Teresa, and Cancionero.
- Essays and Articles: Outlining his concerns about Spain, patriotism, and the afterlife. Key works include Around Casticism (1895), On the Land of Portugal and Spain (1911), Wanderings and Visions Spanish (1922), Life of Don Quixote and Sancho (1905), Tragic Sense of Life (1913), and The Agony of Christianity (1925).
- Short Stories: Such as those collected in The Mirror of Death.
- Dramas: Including Soledad, Raquel, and El Otro.
Unamuno’s sober yet expressive language, incorporating popular terms to revitalize meaning, makes him a pillar of 20th-century Spanish language and a key figure in the Generation of ’98.
Antonio Machado
Educated in modernist aesthetics, Antonio Machado employed simple yet poignant language. His poetry reflects a blend of Romanticism (Bécquer and Rosalía) and Symbolism, positioning him among modernist writers. However, his focus on genuine human emotion distinguishes him. Machado’s poetry explores themes of memories, Spain, the passage of time, death, and the search for God. His inner world is shaped by longing, dreams, and the sense of time.
The landscapes of Castile and Andalusia, where he lived, feature prominently in his work, along with the people of Castile, their history, and present life. He also casts a critical eye on the national situation. Love appears during periods of solitude and contemplation, resurfacing after the death of his wife, Leonor.
Machado’s notable works include:
- Poetry: Solitudes, Galleries and Other Poems (modernist style) and Campos de Castilla (influenced by the Generation of ’98).
- Theater: La Lola se va a los puertos.
- Prose: Juan de Mairena and Abel Martín.
Solitudes (1903, expanded in 1907) is primarily modernist, with neo-romantic and intimate themes. Symbolism conveys Machado’s moods and obsessions. Campos de Castilla (1912, expanded in 1917) explores Castile, its landscape, and critiques “Spain of charanga and tambourine,” expressing hope in youth as a driving force against backwardness and poverty. These themes align him with the Generation of ’98. The book also includes poems dedicated to Leonor, “Proverbs and Songs,” and the ballad “La tierra de Alvargonzález.” While not entirely abandoning modernism, it contains some of Machado’s best-known poems.
Nuevas canciones (1924) features poems written in Baeza and Segovia, utilizing popular short meters, traditional couplets, and flamenco influences, elements later adopted by writers like Rafael Alberti and Federico García Lorca. It also includes refined “Proverbs and Songs.”
Modernism and the Generation of ’98: Connections and Divergences
Modernism, originating in Latin America in the 1880s, particularly in verse under Rubén Darío, emphasized aesthetics, pursuing art and beauty as supreme ideals. The Generation of ’98, emerging from Modernism, focused on Spain’s national problems and advocated for social, political, and cultural renewal.
While Modernism sought to transcend national boundaries with cosmopolitan ambitions, the Generation of ’98 concentrated on Spain. Modernism was a literature of the senses and color, while the Generation of ’98 explored writers’ inner worlds and their attitudes towards the world. Modernism prioritized poetic rhetoric, musicality, and sensual language, appealing to a select few. The Generation of ’98 favored anti-rhetoric, realistic language focused on Spanish reality, accessible to all.
Modernism’s arrival in Spain is marked by Rubén Darío’s visit in 1902, while the Generation of ’98 emerged in 1898.
Origins of the Generation of ’98
The Generation of ’98 comprises writers, essayists, and poets profoundly impacted by the moral and social crisis in Spain following the Spanish-American War and the loss of Puerto Rico, Cuba, and the Philippines in 1898.