German Unification: From Confederation to Empire
The Path to Unity
Unlike Italian unification, the German process faced unique challenges. Despite shared language and culture, Germany was fragmented into numerous small states. Two major powers, Austria and Prussia, competed for leadership. External intervention, unlike French involvement in Italy, played a lesser role. Key factors driving German unification included the Kingdom of Prussia under the Hohenzollern dynasty, influential social classes like the Prussian Junkers and industrial bourgeoisie, and the leadership of Otto von Bismarck.
Foundations of German Unity
The 1815 Treaties of Vienna established the Germanic Confederation, comprising 39 states, with Austria and Prussia as the dominant powers. This initially favored Austrian dominance under Chancellor Metternich, hindering unification efforts. Metternich aimed to maintain Austria’s hegemony within the Confederation and across Europe. This situation shifted mid-century as Metternich’s influence waned and economic development lagged. Prussia, driven by its Protestant bourgeoisie and intellectuals, emerged as a leader by mid-century, spearheading both unification and economic progress. The Zollverein, a customs union established in 1814, fostered economic integration by removing internal trade barriers and protecting German products from foreign competition. By 1852, all German states except Austria had joined the Zollverein.
Political Landscape and the Revolutions of 1848-1849
The movement for German unity also manifested in parliamentary discussions, divided between two concepts: “Greater Germany,” including Austria, and “Lesser Germany,” excluding Austria and under Prussian leadership. The 1848-1849 revolutions disrupted the German states, leading to the dissolution of the parliament without resolution. Both Austria and Prussia suppressed the uprisings. The counterrevolution’s triumph and the ascension of William I to the Prussian throne, along with the appointment of Otto von Bismarck as Chancellor, marked a new phase, paving the way for unification under Bismarck’s leadership.
Bismarck’s Wars and the Forging of an Empire
Bismarck’s strong-arm tactics, military prowess, and diplomatic maneuvering led to three successive wars between 1864 and 1870: the 1864 war against Denmark (Schleswig War), the 1866 Austro-Prussian War, and the 1870 Franco-Prussian War.
- Schleswig War (1864): The pretext for this war was the dispute over the largely German-populated duchies of Southern Denmark, ruled by Denmark under the Congress of Vienna. Bismarck skillfully exploited the succession crisis following the Danish king’s death to initiate conflict with Denmark, allied with Austria.
- Austro-Prussian War (1866): This brief war demonstrated Prussia’s military superiority, culminating in the Austrian defeat at Sadowa. Italy, allied with Prussia, opened another front against Austria. The Treaty of Prague excluded Austria from German affairs and established the North German Confederation, comprising 22 states under Prussian leadership. Bismarck became Chancellor, and two legislative bodies, the Bundesrat and Reichstag (both controlled by Prussia), were created.
- Franco-Prussian War (1870): This war marked a turning point in European power dynamics, ending French supremacy under Napoleon III and ushering in German dominance. The Hohenzollern candidacy for the Spanish throne served as the pretext for war. Bismarck manipulated a telegram from William I to provoke France into declaring war. Prussian victories led to Napoleon III’s downfall, the proclamation of the Third Republic in France, and the coronation of William I as Emperor of Germany, marking the birth of the Second Reich.