German Unification: From Nationalism to Empire
German Unification (1815-1871)
German unification saw Germany awaken their national consciousness, first in the cultural sphere, then economically, and finally, politically.
Upstream (1815-1864): The Main Unifying Factor
German nationalism had two main streams:
- A minority liberal-democratic romanticism of French origin, identifying the nation with a voluntary association of individuals. This concept was tested in the Frankfurt Parliament and advocated for a “Greater Germany,” including Austria and the Netherlands.
- A *Germanic* culture, based on the ideas of Fichte, supported by the conservative bourgeoisie and the landed Prussian nobility (Junkers).
The Congress of Vienna dealt a sharp blow to aspirations, creating a confederation of 39 Germanic states. This first serious attempt at unification failed due to the opposition of the two great powers.
Economic Development
Economic development began in the mid-1830s but only became noticeable after 1850. It was characterized by three elements:
- Accumulation: The first step was creating the *Zollverein* in 1834, a customs union of the northern German states.
- The second effective step was the extension of the rail network.
- Intense population growth and industrialization.
The Kingdom of Prussia’s Protagonism
The Frankfurt Parliament, representing the romantic ideal of creating a liberal Germany, was dissolved. In 1858, William I became King of Prussia. He pursued two objectives: to isolate Austria within the Germanic Confederation and to modernize the army.
Parliament’s resistance to approving a new military budget led to the appointment of Bismarck as Chancellor. Bismarck, a conservative, intelligent, and flexible figure, became the main architect of German unity. He combined diplomacy and war. Despite his diplomatic skills, Bismarck possessed a Prussian Junker mentality and an authoritarian approach.
Crucial Phase (1864-1871)
This phase had three sub-periods:
The Crisis of the Danish Duchies
The duchies of Holstein, Scheswig, and Lauenburg (with German populations) refused to recognize the new Danish king. Prussia and Austria decided to invade and take over their administration. Bismarck sought a pretext for war with Austria.
Austro-Prussian War
Prussia sought confrontation. That same year, Prussia signed an offensive treaty with the Kingdom of Italy and ensured the neutralization of Napoleon III. Prussia defeated Austria at Sadowa, leading to the signing of the Peace of Prague and the creation of the North German Confederation. The Austrian Empire became the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Franco-Prussian War
Napoleon III feared a united Germany due to its potential strength. Bismarck, aware of Prussian military superiority, sought to unify Germany through war with France. He used the crisis in Spain, where both France and Prussia presented candidates for the Spanish throne. The King refused and reported the event. Bismarck intercepted and translated the report in terms that seemed insulting. Napoleon III responded by declaring war on Prussia. The war ended with the French defeat at Sedan, where Napoleon III himself was captured. William I was crowned German Emperor, and France was left with a deep sense of humiliation.