Global Imperialism: Asian Colonization, US Expansion & WWI Origins
European Imperialism in 19th Century Asia
The nineteenth century also saw European penetration into Asia, involving not only established powers but also emerging ones like Russia, the United States, and Japan. British colonization focused on India. Following the Sepoy Mutiny, the British government assumed direct control, establishing a Viceroyalty. Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India.
French expansion centered on Indochina, leading to conflicts in Southeast Asia. France established the Union of Indochina in 1893, incorporating the Kingdom of Laos. During the nineteenth century, the Russian Empire continued its expansion into Siberia and southward. Territorial rivalries with China emerged, and the Russo-Japanese War pitted two major imperialist powers against each other.
China presents a special case, as it was not fully occupied by a single power. The British balanced their trade deficit from purchasing Chinese tea and silk by selling opium. Although later banned, the British continued this trade. This led to the Opium Wars, after which countries like France, the UK, and Russia gained territorial concessions. From that point, British economic interference intensified. This exploitation fueled nationalist reactions, though they initially failed. However, a revolution in 1911 ended imperial rule and proclaimed the Republic of China. Europeans also extended control over other parts of the world, including Oceania.
New Imperialist Powers: US and Japan
Two non-European states also engaged in imperial expansion: the United States and Japan. They sought to expand their influence through economic and political domination.
United States Imperialism
The economic drivers of American expansionism stemmed from the U.S. economic boom in the late nineteenth century and were partly a response to intense European protectionism. Indeed, increasing tariff difficulties imposed on U.S. exports fostered the belief that establishing privileged relationships with new markets was necessary, leading to an expansionist policy. This imperialism found ideological support in concepts like Social Darwinism, suggesting the United States needed to compete vigorously with other nations for survival.
American colonialism often involved interference in the internal affairs of other countries and economic submission, sometimes backed by military intervention to influence government formation or economic management. The Spanish-American War of 1898, concerning Cuba and the Philippines, exemplified this approach. Following Cuba’s declared independence, the United States secured the right to establish a naval base (Guantanamo Bay) and intervene to preserve Cuban independence, protect life, property, and individual liberty (as per the Platt Amendment).
Prelude to World War I: Rising Tensions
During the first decade of the twentieth century, escalating international tensions among European powers created an atmosphere of “armed peace,” signaling the growing likelihood of war. Economic rivalries fueled numerous national and colonial confrontations. The assassination in Sarajevo acted as the trigger for World War I, a conflict that lasted four years and mobilized approximately 70 million combatants.
The conflict resulted in devastating human losses and economic destruction. It reshaped Europe’s political map, leading to the emergence of new states, the dissolution of old empires, and significant border changes. Perhaps the most serious long-term consequence stemmed from the harsh reparations imposed on Germany (via the Treaty of Versailles), which contributed to the conditions leading to a second global conflict just twenty years later.