Globalization and Cooperation: A Comprehensive Analysis

Posted on Sep 27, 2024 in Social sciences

Item 1. Globalization and Cooperation

Globalization, or globalisation, involves the breaking down of limitations that previously prevented operations around the globe in areas such as economy, transport, communications, legislation, resources, and other variables that affect the economic, social, or political framework.

Boundaries gradually disappear for factors that affect the economy, but political boundaries are more resistant, preventing unregulated migration, the movement of workers, technology transfer, and the universal application of social rights. Understanding the mechanisms of globalization is necessary to theorize about cooperation and act with precision in programs or specific actions in different countries.

Development cooperation is not merely a budget transfer, but also encompasses the entirety of public and private policies, supported by many volunteers (though increasingly professionalized), which aim to help ensure that people have financial autonomy for a dignified life and the full development of their individual capacities.

1. The European History

European history offers experiences that frame what we now call development cooperation, peace, aid, and democracy. Some points worth underlining:

• Endemic European conflict. Medieval or modern, internal strife in the form of feuds and wars between states and kingdoms, culminating in the two world wars (1914, 1945), and continuing with the Balkans, is a reactive ingredient for the creation of the European Union.
• The aspirations for peace among all states based on theories of Leibniz (European unit), Bentham (Plan for Perpetual Peace universal), or Kant (Perpetual Peace philosophical Project). Idealizations and legal-political proposals exploring the possibility of order among all states, guided by law and institutions, to avoid wars and build well-being. Not all states participate in the just organization, and war cannot always be stopped.
• The social and political movements that demand levels of equality and freedom with institutions to ensure monitoring and compliance: unions, courts, parliaments, democracy, trade unions, political parties, associations, etc.
• The strategic impact of WWII paradigms of political behavior and socio-economic alternatives to state-planned economies or market economies:
  • “Mythical integration of capital and labor”, represented by fascism and Nazism as a way of overcoming capitalism and communism, with the absence of freedoms.
  • Communist model, implemented in 1917 with the Bolshevik revolution, which implied an absolute power of the state at the expense of freedoms.
  • Democratic capitalist model, in which the market sets the conditions for competitiveness and the state guarantees public order and needed services, with guarantees of individual and collective rights.

The fact that the world wars are known as European, despite involving other countries, is an example of globalization. The triumph of the Allies cleared one of the variables involved in the conflict: the fascist totalitarian model lost its existence and expansion opportunities. The liberal and communist models remained, in a bipolar world.

The geopolitical crystallization that occurred between east and west, and the subsequent execution of the Marshall Plan and the Soviet-led Comecon, created an asymmetrical situation. Eastern countries, in addition to controlling public opinion, found in western democratic countries social organizations, unions, and parties with deep ties and sympathies for the social achievements (full employment) of the Communist countries, contrasting with the severity of working conditions and inequality in the capitalist countries in crisis.

Avoiding the economic and social conditions in which radicalization nests was the first objective of the Marshall Plan. Facilitating the maintenance of conservative parties in power in European countries destroyed by war was the political correlate. Keeping countries in the U.S. economic orbit and the liberal system, rather than the Soviet orbit, was the key to the help. It is the first plan of cooperation and development on a large scale, with the ingredients and stakeholders involving Western cooperation.

In turn, the necessary rationalization of markets and fear of the rise of socialist and communist parties would trigger the establishment of key institutions in the development of globalization and cooperation (IMF, GATT, etc.).

Between the two wars, there had been a tremor of the economic system: the international crisis of 1929, following the ‘Great Depression’ in the U.S. Even before World War II, the macroeconomic crisis and its social consequences in microeconomics were known. Until then, crises were territorial in nature. If a state or territory traversed stagnation or setbacks, there were migrations looking for areas where the industry was still thriving and where resources and raw materials were located.

The cost of transport prevented the distribution and offshoring of production, but in 1929 the crisis affected the whole system; there was no alternative space. Industrial areas and areas with other resources were in stagnation and recession. The social landscape was different and very serious from the social prism; alternatives had to be found in micro actions, looking for alternative approaches, a new paradigm of development: reconciling the economic aspects of investment alternatives with the optimization of solutions to social problems. In addition to economic efficiency, it was essential to require immediate solutions for territorial and poverty issues.

The Marshall Plan is powered by this experience. The global nature of the crisis also brought the rulers to understand the systemic nature of economic actions: they affect all and are influenced by all the elements of the system.

2. Defining Globalization

All attempts to define economic globalization emphasize the priority of the process of globalization, though with different emphases:

• Theodore Levitt uses the word to conceptualize the processes of transformation and integration of the international economy. The market is the reference and objective description of a new phenomenon in the development of modern capitalism.
• Guillermo de la Dehesa defined it as a dynamic process of freedom and global integration of labor markets, goods, services, technology, and capital.

From this conceptual core arise additional planes of reflection:

• What are the causes and the factors involved (technology, transportation, capital, business organization, etc.) that have implemented this process?
• Which areas (social, political, cultural, economic, environmental, etc.) are affected and what level of resistance or incorporation do they manifest?
• Who leads the process of globalization and in what direction, conscious or unconscious of the benefits and collateral damage?
• Who benefits and who is harmed?
• Given the social protests and criticism generated, is it possible to redirect the process and steer it towards “fair” globalization?
• What role do the people, communities, the European Union, Japan, the USA, and emerging states play?
• What role do the areas that suffer have, with no control over the process, and are the impacts passive subjects initially?
• To what extent are the cultural, social, environmental, and corporate policies that are not equipped to assume the effects affected?

3. Origins

All significant socio-economic phenomena are often gestated for a long time, although descriptive results only come from certain stages of development and qualitative impact.

Therefore, the “origin” of the current globalization history lends itself to many perspectives, most lacking sufficient density to become the point to agree on a before and after birth face:

• The opening of major trade routes of the Renaissance, advances in land transport and maritime transport, and the organization of states to ensure security and guarantee commercial developments.
• The discovery of America and the Treaty of Tordesillas, dividing the territories discovered between Spain and Portugal. The promoters have the right powers and willingness to use exotic materials for their own benefit. The scientific renaissance impinged and was fed by the realities discovered and explored.
• Industrial Revolutions:
  • First, with profound economic, social, political, and institutional changes. The synergy that occurs between the steam engine, railways, yarn shop, and others are fundamental to the industrial boom and economic transformation, generating an international market and needing to explore and obtain raw materials worldwide.
  • Second, the synergy of new scientific discoveries and the scientific organization of work (Fordism) generated new dimensions to the energy supply, communications (Suez and Panama canals), and business productivity, which resulted in new markets and volumes of goods transported.
  • Third. Marked by the recovery of the knowledge factor as a strategic ingredient in the production process, the rise of commercial aviation and information, telecommunications, computing, optoelectronics, intensive penetration of ICT and transport transformed the productive system and the global optimization of resources. Production location is deterritorialized and decentralized. (It is the company network).
• The two world wars, together with the crisis of ’29, highlight the globalization of military conflict and the global financial system involvement.
• The effects of World War II put in place global agreements that aim to distribute geographic areas of jurisdiction and proceed with the reconstruction, development of world trade, and the rules for monitoring and institutional behavior:
  • Bretton Woods Conference: brought order to the integration of Western economies, through regulations ensuring currency stability, fixed exchange rates, liberalization of markets, and the subordination of the interests of the South to the North.
  • World Bank
  • International Monetary Fund
  • GATT
  • ECSC
  • EURATOM
  • EU Treaty of Rome
  • WTO

Only the Bolshevik Revolution and the creation of the COMECON, with a different economic and geopolitical sphere, seem to aim in the opposite direction.

• The fall of the Berlin Wall is considered the metaphor that best portrays the new era of globalization. Around that time, there are many phenomena that are conditio sine qua non for globalization, such as the net change in U.S. primacy. A single economic system would correspond to a single thought: political correctness. Along with this, the INTERNET, born for military tasks, is transferred to the economic sphere and social research.
• The cheap prices of energy, transport growth in all its ways, and the embrace of ICT synergy provide real-time production information for the planet. The image of Chomsky’s global village is realized.
• The versatility of the road as a transport and distribution system and the development of ships, with the logical correlate of modernization and port facilities, set up a new production and transit of goods. The industrialization-production-distribution equation is transformed, and industry still is challenged.

4. Factors that Enable Globalization

We find ourselves before a process of analysis of variables that have contributed to the crystallization of the phenomenon and its release.

• The second and third industrial revolutions reshaped the factory, production, etc., proceeding to a deconstruction of the production process, distribution, and sale. It is designed in geographical areas favorable for the accumulation of knowledge; parts of the product are manufactured in different places and are assembled in the right place for distribution or commercial domain; we have the address where tax revenue interests us, etc.
• New technologies and the computer network are indispensable conditions for the success of the enterprise networking. The possibility of coordination and business dialogue is needed to run a company that coordinates, directs, adapts to daily demand, and responds to an increasingly competitive and variable offer. ICT has helped to develop a new employment landscape, blurring geographical and temporal constraints. The INTERNET occupies a privileged place among the factors that enable globalization. We are moving toward electronic literacy of the general population. Young people have adopted it as their own space, and information exclusion has serious effects for the doubters.
• Means of transportation have evolved to levels of effectiveness and efficiency heretofore unknown. The miles of road built on all continents have increased so quickly that we are facing clogging problems of geographical space and very serious environmental pollution problems, as well as the insecurity that comes with road transport.
• Transport logistics has developed to such a degree that it is increasingly residual. The scientific analysis applied to the movement of components, raw material purchasing, distribution and storage, etc., optimizes the performance of the fleets. Intermodal logistics is strengthened, using any of the modes that suit the conditions of load and distance. Based on input from ICT, it is able to optimize the charge collection and distribution and direct routes depending on the load.
• The energy capacity produced, discovered in deposits, the ability to transport and serve, and the opportunity for an energy price that supports the relocation of companies make it economically compatible to produce where production is cheap and there is a precarious job market and to consume in countries with high purchasing power. This situation is one of the strategic ingredients of the market and offers great geopolitical alternatives.
• The scientific level of the various companies in synergy with the above. Not only the level established for products and patents, but the scientific level of the general public and businesses that benefit from the effects of scientific dissemination. The training of workers, their skills and abilities, and the level of access to ICT and its impact on productivity are some of the determining factors. The level of access to the knowledge society generates the most important differentiating failure between societies, regions, and groups. Some 70 million workers employed by multinationals are the epicenter of global work; called preprogrammed to differentiate them from generics, they are characterized by their training, level of information, knowledge, and extensive use of new technologies and their ability to adapt and train depending on demand. Their work is guaranteed, and their income is higher and higher, although there is an increasing differentiation between senior specialists and so-called mileuristas, workers who are preprogrammed to offer them a saturation leading to proletarianization.
• The media generate information that complements the work of dull, corporate mechanisms, banking, and institutional operations throughout the hemisphere, establishing an image of proximity, presence, and complementarity that gravitates in the concerns and attitudes of citizens.
• Multinationals are at the symbolic reference and are considered visible and active agents of globalization. The process of mergers and business associations were effective for more benefits. Based on the potential of ICT, the price of transport and energy, and the labor market and the ability to train their employees, they operate with a direct presence at the state, social, and community levels, through a relocation that allows them to operate worldwide. Their employees are preprogrammed, and they have the capabilities of local firms, which, maintaining the price levels of competition, allow them to clear the costs of relocation once they are settled. They are welcomed where they intend to settle, as they create jobs and increase living standards, but their profitability in the medium term is questioned. The game of chance that they can take in not being bound by a national market generates the image that their strategies are beyond the capacities and priorities of laws and strategies, using them to their convenience and without getting involved in development issues and social cohesion.
• Capital markets. Their integration since 1990 in a comprehensive, active, and continuous consultation and operation system is a verifiable fact. The big cities are, increasingly, in the hands of multinationals linked to new technology and communication that seek times of purchase and sale of shares, without knowing the history of the property acquired, with no link whatsoever to maintain (cognitive, emotional, social) other than their performance. This dynamic creates huge speculative capital flows into and out of state systems with no connection to the goals that governments or particular societies have. Capital is abstract, unaware of microeconomics. Economic crises are treated away from any commitments of the investor with the social interest.
• The deregulation of markets and capital investment. State regulation is often shot through with exceptions to competition and premiums for the social effects of economic investment. Neoliberalism demands a clear picture, trusting that the market will transform the economic situation and improve it, without state aid. This involves removing constraints in project contracting and labor in the extraction of raw materials or the nationality of capital. International economic organizations have the task of ensuring that there is no interference with competition, through clear and binding rules. They make the playing field while maintaining anonymity, an impersonal setting process, and monitoring legal bracket investment. The border is in compliance with the international standard.
• The thinning of the state due to the loss of economic sovereignty versus international institutions and multinationals and the relegation of privatization and social commitments. Public companies and service management are regarded as outside business competition and capable of joining the private social legislation that defends the idea that recruitment should be deregulated.
• The welfare state is the problem, not the solution, for a liberal view of globalization. The primacy of the social over the economic and Keynesianism holds the state as the source that feeds it, limiting and reducing the likelihood of performance of international capital.

The confluence of these and other variables defines the degree of globalization of each country, although none can be abstracted to its incidence.

5. The Washington Consensus

Economist John Williamson tried to summarize the conditions for economic globalization to operate smoothly. His proposal was agreed upon by the major U.S. economic groups and was addressed to everyone, but especially to emerging countries that would be subject to the liabilities of globalization.

Those who accept the basic rules would be considered reliable and the privileged recipients of foreign investment. The requirements posed significant economic and budgetary sacrifices, with significant social impact, easier for consolidated economies than for countries with poor infrastructure tissue, in addition to pressing problems of poverty or social development. The macroeconomic objectives of the Washington Consensus are:

• Fiscal discipline. Countries should adapt without resorting to debt, considered retardant and counterproductive for the modernization of the system. Debt does not guarantee economic optimization and diversifying into social spending by the huge primary needs of these societies. The public deficit should be limited so that resources are available to productive investments.
• The state must restrict an important part of public spending, allowing the private sector to manage public service areas. Managing these areas in a deficient and non-market way involves charging the costs and the total payment by the user, without subsidies, and an open competition system, which will increase the cost to the user. The image of the Keynesian welfare state, which intervenes in times of economic crisis to generate employment and provide basic services, is the opposite of the recommendation of the so-called Washington consensus.
• The tax system should be drastically reduced, without tax or investment banking or business benefits, ensuring that the welfare state disappears and is replaced by a private service, affordable in terms of the purchasing power of individuals and families.
• The privatization of public enterprises (in many cases, monopolies), with high rates of social protection for workers and “political” prices to users or consumers. The impact is of such depth that it often generates a climate of confrontation (France) against the government.
• State deregulation of international capital access and foreign investment.
• Eliminating trade barriers by creating a global financial and economic space available, without fees or quotas that favor the national installed capacity, which accepts only the standards developed and monitored by international agencies.
• Investment should not be subject to restrictions on amount, interest rates, currency devaluations, or price.
• The free entry of investments and products and a deregulated labor market, moving in line with demand and productivity, are guaranteed by the state, but the state is not the manager.

The Washington Consensus is coherent and understandable for the most powerful economic and financial groups. It was written the same year (1989) that the Berlin Wall fell. Facing the ideological adversary that had kept the bipolarity, the model of economic rationality, market, and democracy emerges as the only alternative. The variables presented are proven from the international economic standpoint.

But the production process is based on partnerships forged in cultural and social histories that should be taken into account when facing side effects. The Consensus abstracts from these effects:

• It does not assume the international mobility of workers, only of capital, goods, and services.
• It does not analyze the impacts on societies that are less suitable for industrial purposes.
• It does not include the impacts on the identity of many communities.
• It assumes no environmental effects.
• It does not provide the governance that is needed to control it.
• It does not address the most critical variables, such as poverty, hunger, and extreme inequality.

IN SUMMARY: It does not get involved in the alternatives.

• The effects have been strong on developing countries.
• The conditions for debt restructuring have been arched by these proposals and managed by the WB and IMF.
• The economic health required by the application of the stated objectives has prevailed over the guarantee of services to people with less purchasing power.
• Social inequalities in many of these countries are abysmal, with large sections of the population who remain in poverty.
• The flow of capital has created crises that have plunged whole countries into economic depression, with their own bankruptcies. Some of the impacts have sent global effects that have been reflected with specific names:
  • “Tequila effect” (Mexico 1994)
  • “Dragon effect” (South Asia 1995)
  • “Vodka effect” (Russia 1998)
  • “Samba effect” (Brazil 1998)
  • ‘Tango effect’ (Argentina 2000).
• The process has been necessary for the recovery of developing countries. Investment, despite the lack of control and lack of commitment to the environment, has allowed the generation of support for the development of entire regions and has enabled the location of endogenous products in international markets over the restrictive policies and subsidized products in rich countries, bordering on business dumping.
• The cultural impact of the models of democracy and universal human rights, equality of women, and the rights of children to education and not to be used as labor was also the result of the transmission of cultural effects of globalization.

There is therefore a dual perspective of globalization:

• One that is based on the concentration and rationalization of the production process, accelerated by research, technology, transport, and the hegemonic capacity of the liberal model. According to this perspective, progress and modernity reach all areas, implying a rising standard of living and cultural and democratic benefits.
• The judgmental attitudes that mark globalization, in which collateral damage is considerable, democratic slippage is significant, and the benefits of the system are asymmetric.

6. Anti-Globalization

The objective relating to globalization, its factual positions are:

• Multinationals with their status as “in-network companies operating worldwide.”
• Financial capital, operating over state sovereignty. It is less noticeable, but has all its weight in times of crisis.
• The international institutions that promote and monitor the global market, reviving the behavior of states, such as the IMF, WB, and WTO. The U.S., for its power and capacity, is the synthetic reference for globalization.

Permanent confrontation lies in the antiglobalization movement. There is no structured organization, but a flow of people and organizations that move toward the same horizon from different positions. Each of the movements that compose it coincides with the common enemy but differs on the motivations and the specific claims to the various problems. Only the clear capture of their opponent has a consistent and unified action in big moments, defined by the meetings of the institutional bodies (IMF, World Bank, European Leaders, G-8, etc.)

The inability to present a common alternative, to differ on the strategy, and to be peaceful or violent has raised important issues, but without being able to receive articulated democratic and electoral representation. Its composition shows a remarkable polychrome:

• Unions, which held contributing concentration, its affiliates;
• Environmentalists, fragmented into a multitude of organizations;
• NGOs, critical, even subsidized by governments;
• Anti-militarists, anti-capitalists, anarchists;
• Indian associations;
• Progressive intellectuals, leftists, activists organized, but no active local groups committed to, etc.

One focus of struggle is the demand for the abolition of the debt of developing countries, granted in the 1970s by the IMF and WB to dictatorial governments in many cases, in exchange for economic adjustments with severe social effects on poverty-stricken populations.

The biggest media impact occurred in Seattle in 1999, produced by a combination of factors:

• Thousands of people (20,000–100,000) concentrated to protest against globalization and its institutions.
• The call was articulated silently, using one of the key instruments of globalization: the Internet.
• The AFL-CIO union movement covered formal protest over the impact that WTO rules were having on labor contracts.
• The concentration was unprepared for; the local administration had not provided for a situation of mass protests and violence.
• The attitude of many protesters was confrontational with security forces, ending up producing more than two million in damages.
• There were many wounded and 500 arrested.
• Public opinion was shocked by the place, the violence, and the number of protesters.
• Authorities and officials who should have starred in the 3rd Round of the World Trade Organization could not access the site. The WTO meeting ended up suspended without reaching conclusions.
• The antiglobalization movement declared itself international, multi-sectoral, and anti-system and was aware that its popularity was due to the low level of violence.
• It is the position regarding violent actions of the failures of the movement. Officially, it was not violent, but an anarchist and anti-minority initialed manifestations achieved through confrontation and destruction. This image, served by global television, subtracted support for the movement. Seattle’s claims are classic:
  • Abolition of external debt
  • Claim of fair trade
  • Control and taxation for capital in line with the “Tobin tax” advocated by the association ATTAC
  • Rejection of child labor led by multinationals
  • Opposition to military spending
  • Filing of the WTO and other such institutions’ interests of powerful countries outside the social impact of their decisions.

The events in New York on 9/11/2001 marked a turning point, as if the twin towers had been destroyed in their fall, only much thinking. The effect fell on Seattle meetings of the UN, WB, IMF, the World Social Forum, Davos or the World Economic Forum: Washington, Salzburg, Barcelona, where it was held by videoconference, or Genoa, with more than 150,000 attendees and the shooting of a demonstrator.

After 9/11, a new attitude of public opinion and less permissive practices by governments were generated. The successive appointments of international agencies have conducted their meetings with exclusion zones for protection, border controls, and small demonstrations without the least permissive attitude.

The nature of assemblies makes it difficult to talk about concerning recognition from the intellectual or political prism. From José Bové, a member of the French Academy of Sciences, accredited by their presence in the forums and multinational actions against GM products, to intellectuals such as Noam Chomsky (Global Village), MIT professor of linguistics Noami Kleim (No logo. The power of the masses), Canadian Susan George (Lugano Report), Indian Vandana Shiva (Biodiversity and rights of peasants), and Ignacio Ramonet (Le Monde Diplomatique), the Nobel Peace laureate Muhammad Yunus (micro), are divided, with many others, theoretical references of the antiglobalization movement.

7. External Debt of Developing Countries

Governments have the opportunity to acquire loans in international markets and are used to them because they offer advantages and lower interest rates to meet needs that otherwise would wait a long time.

In democratic countries, there is precise control of the amounts sent and a sustainability analysis, the capacity to repay, without prejudice to the commitments of the state towards its citizens. Priority actions are outlined; they are destined, in their majority, to transport infrastructure, communications, energy, business promotion, or social actions. Normally, there are no pressing issues for return, and the benefit is mutual between donor and recipient.

The problem of external debt refers to developing countries with a difficult situation, without resources to compensate for their weakness, competitive and non-democratic political systems, and democratic semantics. There is confusion that the purpose of the debt accumulated by many of these countries were actions to correct inequalities and solve structural problems of infrastructure to compete internationally by increasing productivity, but many, declared or not, have been for weapons.

Debt is foreign to the priorities of the population; it has been negotiated by governments or have been entitled in low-quality democracies and has not been supervised by the creditors. If we add the irresponsibility of creditor agencies to the lack of control, we can understand the attitude of the population in terms of rejection and sense of injustice. The specific conditions under which debt occurs cannot be abstracted:

• The U.S. resolves its deficit situation by competitive devaluation of the dollar, which helps improve the trade balance and causes losses in all economies and products with a high level of exports, whose price is set at the American currency.
• OPEC’s reaction, after several warnings are not taken into account, putting in doubt its ability to act together, is embodied in the rise of crude oil in 1973, leaving no alternative energy source and producing an international crisis.
• With no alternative, oil countries increase their profits, invading financial channels with their petrodollars, looking for sufficient returns by lending at conjunctural cheap prices. It is the first wave of loans to governments of developing countries, with low control, low interest, long repayment periods, and a lack of generosity.
• The assumption that all states have guaranteed minimum solvency makes creditors forget the caution of the banking profession, including the treatment of claims fit with the avowed reason in them.
• The opacity caused by the lack of information, the rotation of the signatory, and the ease and accessibility of the first payments keep the problem hibernating, including defaults, until in 1982, Mexico declared itself insolvent to meet its debt claims.
• The contradiction emerges to confront the social demand for poverty and inequality that these countries have and the reality of the debt claimed, nothing less than 5 or 10% of GDP.
• The question from the media, opposition politics, and public opinion is, “In which loans were invested?”
• The credit market developments and progressive control of inflation produced a higher cost of initial conditions.
• The investigation of claims and uncontrolled creditors cast serious conclusions in the explanation to the public.
• A military priority, with presumed or proven corrupt intermediaries, plus the use for business interests connected to power.
• This has materialized in fragile economies, weak infant industry, and pressing social needs, with high rates of real poverty.
• Social differences are more explosive and increase in these countries, where the ruling elite and economic powers, being the local references of the multinationals, are a breed with a shameless display of their situation.
• The second stage of debt is enacted with the explicit statement of the Mexican government that it cannot meet the payment obligations.
• The reaction is immediate, and emerging institutions whose goal is to save most of the capital, such as the Club of Paris, where the states, representing public creditors, mark actions, establish joint policies, and agree on criteria to carry out control.
• The Paris Club selected 41 countries, depending on the difficulty level of debt and payment, the so-called HIPC (highly indebted poor countries). The reduction of debt by 67%, the macroeconomic measures, and spending cuts, given the social needs and the weakness of its public services, are monitored by the FM. For the rest, the better off, it has the “Evian approach”, which involves a joint analysis with the country concerned to agree on the level of sustainable debt. Most indebted: Benin, Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana, Honduras, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Nicaragua, Niger, Rwanda, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia.
• The Brady Plan is another initiative to help countries manage the return and the renegotiation of debt through bonds and new loans, provided that plans are subject to adjustment in their economies.
• One of the demands of structural adjustment brings with it higher taxes to balance the cost of public services. They go to product prices, indirect taxes paid in relation to consumption, and personal income.
• The evolution of loans obtained in the 1970s and the new terms of sustainability increase the cost of old and new loans. According to the UN Programme for Development (UNDP), the cost has quadrupled.
• The countries in the last places in the HDI remain outside the system of financial relationships and do not provide guarantees of debt sustainability.
• The policy of economic and social cohesion of the EU has shown that the recovery of deprived areas needs active policies to boost the competitiveness of small and medium enterprises, structural adjustment, and control of expenditure. FAD credits are not eligible because they are more oriented to facilitate export guarantees for European entrepreneurs, which increases the recipient countries’ debt.

Due to pressure from public opinion and the companies themselves in debt, the G-8 and other international organizations remitted part of the external debt, which in 1996 exceeded $2 trillion.

Options to address social and structural problems of the countries that were free of debt were made without caution and lost. The process should be achieved through an additionality agreement, under which debt relief required a promise to devote the waived funds to investments that improve the social, economic, and environmental situations.

Spain has had an excessively commercial cooperation and the accumulation of external debt. FAD credits and ESC-EC, aimed at ensuring the recovery of exports that employers make to heavily indebted countries, represent some of the debt. There are also private bank loans that are more difficult to reduce or cancel.

Membership of the Club of Paris and its participation in the IMF program for HIPC has been below expectations and pragmatic. It is now envisaged to complement these policies with Spanish rules that favor needy countries and sell their common non-international policy problems discussed.

8. Globalization and Governance

The experience of cooperation has led to critical conclusions about its effects to be made by the governments of developing countries. The use of interest as some governors and their surroundings produces skepticism in the cooperating countries and organizations. Certain elites of poor countries have improved their positions thanks to support management and prevented democratic development, keeping opaque systems, based on traditions and a repressive capacity incompatible with the objectives of cooperation.

Today, the requirement to link explicit cooperation and progress towards democracy or quality, when it comes to countries that practice it, is not governance. The absence of democratic coexistence frameworks has serious consequences for the development of people, though there are examples of growing without democratic progress (China). Experience has shown that a lack of control has occurred in commitments such as debt, which helped to sink the economy.

Governance has two addresses connected to the problems of developing countries:

• How a government’s relations with its citizens are helping or hindering the integration and participation of the same. A benchmark of governance for this goal is the White Paper on Governance (COM). Its aim is to bring reforms to improve the European democratic system and contribute to the empowerment of associations and citizens.

The makers claim that public-relations institutions are more next in the face of high rates of abstention and lack of support, according to the Eurobarometer, through a series of measures:

• Open the process of policy making in order to involve more people and organizations involved in shaping it
• More transparency
• Greater accountability of all participants
• Updated information and online access at all stages of the decision-making process
• More systematic dialogue with representatives and regional and local bodies at an early stage of policy making
• Greater flexibility in methods and implementation of Community legislation to take account of regional and local specificities
• Minimum standards for consultation on EU policy
• Consultation arrangements and guarantees of transparency and representativeness of the organizations
• Improving the dialogue with third countries
• Simplification of legislation
• Identification of long-term goals

All these measures propose five goals of good governance:

• Open: extensive communication with government, organizations and citizens in a language understandable to enable mutual trust.
• Participation: from the beginning to the implementation of policies and in the subsequent assessment, citizens must be guaranteed their participation
• Disclaimer: keep clear the responsibility that each one takes, depending on their role and implementation of policies r.
• Effectiveness: European policies should be taken as appropriate to the goals set after a proper analysis, aware of their impact and evaluation of results.
• Consistency: Despite the complexity and magnitude of the materials, there must be consistency between the position of the different levels of performance and understanding affordable by the population. The legitimacy of policies must come from the rationality and the identification of citizens with them.

Since its implementation, indicators of the attitude towards the EU show that:

• support for EU membership has increased 5 points
• the image of the EU has increased 6 points
• and the perceived benefits of membership of the EU 2 points
• and reduced negative opinions on these three indicators, especially regarding the image of the EU (15% vs. 20%).

The incorporation of citizens in political affairs and institutions through quality information and involvement, is the sign of the new citizenship, with rights and duties appropriate to the new culture demorática participative and responsible.

Apply these objectives in developing countries increase the chances of economic and social recovery and ensure that the efforts of solidarity would be used to a maximum degree of optimization.

The reality is quite different and in many cases, even minimum democratic values and human rights guarantee, aid conditions become difficult and organizations should seek independence from governments to manage, rdiendo and part of the synergy which leads the proceedings with jmtas. The need for independence of aid management is inversely proportional to the level of governance that an aid recipient country has achieved.

• and participation opportunities for citizens of different countries in the globalization process. Another point of reference for governance is given by the relationships established globally: globalization Who governs?

No country is able to bookmark the processes at work taking advantage of the conditions of globalization can not claim benefit from the effects alone, legitimize and impose such a situation. All processes are transnationalized or uncontrolled, but not subject to any state control. It is urgent to establish controls and events that affect everyday life but that are generated outside state control.

Despite the criticisms of the UN, there is no other organization can make a strategy of dialogue. Is against the ineffectiveness and slowness of decisions and resolutions are not met, with impunity when it comes to major countries or protected by a country with weight in the Security Council like the U.S. and Israel, China, Russia and the countries that move in your area.

By the United Nations, through its conferences and summits, provide him with a body of doctrine (education and development, childhood, environment, human rights, population, development, women, housing and settlements or MDGs) agreed and in constant renewal. The criticisms fall on the ability to implement the principles and show that aid has a peak performance. The purchase agreement letter of legitimacy and unilateral action (Iraq) have no such agreement, suffer from a political erosion.

The UN General Assembly produced, in 2001 the Millennium Declaration in which they inserted the Millennium Development Goals. The economic and social development of developing countries, the fight against hunger and poverty, the recognition of the rights of women and others, should be considered in the globalization process through concrete commitments and measurable objectives.

Increased dialogue with civil society organizations are characterizing the next stage because they are those who suffer the problems. International governance requires the participation of governments and civil society, as articulated by the trade associations and even interpreted as bridging and added difficulty for governments. But it is difficult to argue that human rights treaties do not need dialogue. Without public support, all policies remain in the failure.

Development cooperation begins in governance, not in the fight against the effects of globalization. Control the causes implies that there is a democratic environment decision to establish rules that prevent certain negatively impact development. Transnational institutions are necessary to evaluate the actions of businesses, organizations and institutions. Reconciling globalization and economic and social cohesion is the key to globalization “fair. The problem is who pays. Clearly, extracting benefits of globalization should admit that one of the keys to sustainable growth is to enable everyone to benefit, but the conditions are therefore needed institutions requiring them.

To claim that freedom of capital movement is the best vehicle for generating trade-industrial societies to incorporate and increase the level of development is to rely on market mechanisms to the social situation of communities, without compromising the benefit of society. There is a clear discrepancy between economics and politics, between interdependence of markets and the absence of effective global mechanisms for monitoring and control.

When a territory has no law dealing with the powerful. Interestingly, the movements are more assertive, and apparently anti-system, which twist are demanding more action to be taken from international bodies owned and heard the demands of the globalizing business environment.

The quick reaction processes and international cooperation against international crime and terrorism show that there is political will, the problems of globalization are manageable despite its complexity.

James Tobin, proposed in 1972, the “Tobin tax”, getting a sense of Keynes on the creation of a tax on financial transactions for investors to link their actions to permanently extends the foreign exchange market in order that international capital flows to be discouraged and to eliminate speculation.

The objective of the movement of capital goes to the speculation in the currency markets, in and out quickly and qualified information that allows them to take profits and leave a weak currency crisis situation. The increasing market deregulation allows emergence of these movements.

It is estimated that a billion and half dollars are daily movements in the area and only 5-8% are investor itself. The proposed rate, between 0.05% and 0.1% would impact the collection of amounts to be applied to developing countries. Any 240 000 million, added to aid in cooperation and aim of 07%, would transform the mechanisms and potential development of programs that run as immediate profit.

The dedication of the money to productive projects, prevent losses of small investors or pension funds and underserved business failure by investors to the attractiveness of speculative markets.

No less important to maintain normal development and stability of currencies, especially those with weak economies, to give confidence to the industrial.

The weight of the Tobin tax return to give governments in the control of capital is what makes their introduction. Although the funds were guaranteed by an international entity, is considered a hindrance Keynesian intervention whose development is suspicious.

Economic globalization, coupled with cultural and political impact primarily on emigration. The vehicles make moving, hindering the flow laws, media, mobile phones and phone booths, maintain contact with home communities and family networks of migrants settled and stable enough at work, operating as a first host base for new migrants

Item 2. Community social work and development cooperation

1. Introduction

Social Work and the Politics of Development Cooperation share their youth. The second is about fifty years and the first, initial conceptual problems of any scientific discipline.

Next to it is added to the contradictory evolution. The absence of a clearly defined concept of development, has conditioned the first steps taken internationally towards the eradication of poverty and marginalization, a purely economic approach to what is meant by progress has been spurred, to sustain radical change in the socioeconomic and political model of social reality, which was named Social Work Awareness. “To hinder its concept, joins growing up in the opposite direction to the development of other disciplines, which have begun to produce a common, as has been strong, have been diversifying into unrelated branches that only thanks to its progressive development came to be, being aware that they belonged to an identical tree, and that they were unique specialties and common: Social Work (Moix).

Cooperation Policy and Social Work have been able to clarify its purpose and specific objectives. Their own unique procedures have made:

• Policy for Development Cooperation in a specialized field of external action of any democratic State, especially where the public has deeply rooted social,
• Social Work done as a scientific discipline imposed, to its own particular methodology and ethics of deep human content.

2. SOCIAL WELFARE underdeveloped countries

The concepts are subject to ongoing re-conceptualization and social change requires, by its dynamic, a persistent change. The speech development is a clear example of adaptation to social reality mutant. There are many attempts semantic precision for the sake of an intervention to eradicate poverty and marginalization in many countries that are embedded in the earth.

Barros has four distinct and successive concepts over the history of cooperation:

1. development and promotion of economic activity to increase and accelerate the number of goods at less cost and time possible.
2. universal education, for individuals to participate and join forces for progress.
3. the political and ideological education to sensitize and educate their target populations.
4. globalization of culture as a liberating process.

N. Kisnerman distinguishes three meanings of development:

1. economic: development is identified with growth and economic prosperity. The paradigmatic model to be imitated by the developing countries is the system of economic and social production of capitalism. The promotion of technological and financial aid is vital for the transition in these geographic areas exhausted
2. Structural: underdevelopment is a direct result of the internal structures of domination and dependence on external impeding effective use of resources
3. sociocultural: the economic growth must walk from the hands of the social and cultural causes as are those who will determine the application of imported production forms

Ander – Egg proposed development requires a community approach, which should be taken into account the multiplicity of factors: economic, cultural, political, social, etc. Presuppose work with a man-actor in the process of making their own lives and the historical process of its time and its people, distinguishing three models:

1. Traditional model that maintains the existing

2. Modernizing development model set

3. Revolutionary model that is radically transforming the community

In the sixties, the UN called for sustained growthin which economic growth should incorporate the redistribution of wealth, a fair and balanced social model.

The environmental degradation of the ecosystem was considered by the UN in Stockholm in 1972. Since then, the development and progress ideas have an element of balance: the protection and ecosystem conservation, rational use of resources which involves measuring the environmental impact prior to implementation of technologies and new modes of production. This new dimension is known as eco-development model.

The OECD, in 1992, incorporating sustainability as a primary objective on which progress depends on the way that integrates social and environmental objectives with economic ones.

A new impetus to the notion was made more balanced with the Declaration of the World Summit for Social Development, 95 agreed to as central tenets:

• promote the goal of full employment and prepare everyone for getting secure livelihoods and sustainable
• to promote social integration by fostering societies that are stable, safe and fair, based on human rights, discrimination, tolerance, respect for cultural, ethnic and religious diversity, equal opportunities, solidarity and participation
• achieving equality and equity between men and women and promote equal participation in family life and community
• promote universal and equitable access to education and quality health care, correcting the inequalities that affect vulnerable groups
• accelerate economic, social and economic development of Africa and the least developed countries, promoting the development of democratic institutions and finding solutions to external debt, economic reform, food security and diversification of commodities
• enhance and effectively use resources allocated to the social,
• ensure that structural adjustment programs (economic and fiscal reforms designed to stabilize and streamline national economies) to promote basic social programs, increasing the efficiency of charities and social spending
• improve and strengthen the framework of international cooperation, regional and subregional cooperation for social development through the UN and other multilateral institutions.

3. linking social work with development cooperation policy

Linking Community Development and Development Cooperation takes the final outcome of the Second World War as emblematic historical stage

UNESCO was the first institution worldwide to take urgent steps to intervene in the Third World to promote their social, economic, political and cultural development,and Community Development programs for the impoverished areas of Africa, Asia and Latin America. They arise from the awareness and geopolitical and economic factors of the northern countries. Subsequently, the Community Development Expands to industrialized countries in marginal and rural areas.

Were used as instruments of governmental intervention, aimed at improving the living conditions of the continents above. In Asia, India will be the first State in 1952. In Africa, the colonies, to bring these countries into a new political-economic framework and access to their emancipation, and independence. The specific objectives pursued the construction of infrastructure and socio-economic policies

Prevailed at that time a purely economic conception of development that will soon be changed by a more inclusive sense and globalization. A group of UN experts in a report of 56 (Community Development and Related Services) have outlined a new model of intervention from a new analysis of reality. According to this document, refers to community development processes in which a population’s efforts to join his government to improve conditions of communities, integrating them into the life of the country and enable them to contribute to national progress.

Community Development and introduces a duality of actors (government or power on the one hand, and population or civil society, on the other). The way to improve living conditions in all areas is, inescapably, the joint collaboration of public authorities and the indigenous community. The explicit aim is for the community to make their own decisions about their work and the very concept of development. It is a process of self-help, transformation of the community through the identification and expression of their needs for greater accountability and control in their own development

Since the sixties a qualitative leap to spread to urban centers. Allow the Community Development provided with greater flexibility to act on different territories and the ability to adapt to the circumstances of each country, with different strategies depending on whether:

• Westernized nations dominate the processes of community education
• nations have not agreed to independence. precedence strategies community development

The purpose is to help people find what they wanted to do and the best way to do it by itself. The organization is non preset and are less concerned about teaching to help them learn. The worker does not direct to the community, serving as a catalyst to encourage people to think for themselves.

Social Work and Cooperation Policy shared principles:

• respect for the dignity of the individual,
• promotion of free participation (expression and organization)
• development and deepening of democratic institutions
• social progress and improved quality of life, material and intellectual, of individuals and their families.

The legal framework that underpins the model of action of Community Development is the international legal order on rights, freedoms and democracy is founded on faith in the value of the individual. The profession is responsible for fighting for the protection of the rights and moral responsibility to work towards the elimination of discrimination.

Events of major historical significance have transformed the traits that characterized and defined the international society and international relations. The bankrupt communist countries, the emergence of new states, the political development of certain countries and the intensification of European integration in the field of international cooperation have contributed to the improvement of the quantity and quality of aid.

The reality of the Third World is not uniform. The degree of development achieved by some countries has altered the contents of cooperation policies, diversifying the ideologies of intervention for a global sustainable development. The diversity of economic situations have singled action processes and consolidation of democratic institutions and the implementation of a basic network of social services, health and education.

Social work has taken up the challenge of discovering the proliferation of new requirements, their activity becomes multidimensional and has quickly gained in carrying out its various tasks. The scope is no longer the traditional task facing the needy, the social worker is required to develop three types of functions:

• administrative bureaucracy as a traditional or a modern theory of management
• bureaucratic organizational efforts to make accurate
• policies, to participate in the political process of negotiation and compromise.

The first two are conceptual and professionals, the third is more related to the distribution of resources, according to the morals and values. Social work is the realization of social policy where equality is weaker and more difficult. Reflection should focus on the micro situation without losing sight of its relationship with the larger field. It has been dualized the outlook for action in countries in need, and can distinguish between two different socioeconomic and political contexts distinct:

• the countries that do not have the basic structures of welfare
• the ones who have experienced a substantial change in the increasing quality of life. In this, the functions of community social work are:
• contribute to capacity building of the community to which she herself pay attention to the needs presented and participate in the development process
• routed to users in planning services
• collaborate and participate in the preparation of development plans
• work in organizations seeking to adapt their goals to the demands of reality
• serve as an interlocutor between the population and the administration and inquire about existing resources and those necessary to meet the needs of the community.
• inform the public of the plans that are intended to carry out
• enable the community to express their needs and preferences and demands of the administration’s resolution of them effectively

Certain areas are characterized by a complete lack of services and the almost total absence of aid and public interventions require the traditional intervention model community. Social Worker becomes primarily on existing services coordinator. However, in a project of Community Development, the professional acts in a professional team, from an agricultural technician for a qualified small business development.

The dramatic situation in which people are immersed and ethnic minorities, with armed conflicts, marginalization and discrimination and the lack of devices to ensure respect for the dignity, demand immediate action to promote a peaceful context that facilitates the development of the organization community to satisfy their needs and the articulation of demand.

Cobra force the statement of E. Ander-Egg on the action of a specific model of social work, understood as’ social technology whose specific functions are the implementation of social policies and education, advocacy and social entertainment and services, conducted with a range of care, preventive or rehabilitation. It seeks to spark a process of self-promotion, as in each case the scope. People have to participate in their own organizations, in all that concerns their own lives to help achieve a political project which means changing situations and overcoming poverty, marginalization, domination and exploitation to others of greater equality, social integration, solidarity, freedom, and justice.

Action in geographic areas that has driven development model, more akin to welfare structures taken collectively, enable a practice most unique Community Development. Community social work, typical of these countries, it is understood as all the procedures by which the social partners, appeal to community resources to take care of the problems of the situations of need. It is implementing the Community Development conditions in industrialized countries.

4. Social workers in the world of cooperation

The Royal Decree 519/2006 establishes the status of cooperating. It fulfills a legal and moral debt to the 1400 Spanish cooperating in developing the International Cooperation Law 23/1998 which established the requirement of approval of the regulatory framework for the work of aid workers on their rights and obligations, incompatibilities, training, accreditation services and social welfare arrangements ..

According to Article 2, are cooperating individuals involved in implementing it on the field, completion of an international instrument for cooperation for development or humanitarian assistance in any stage to perform in a country or territory of development aid policy and having a legal relationship with a person or entity promoting cooperation for development or humanitarian action

They must be linked to the promoter through the legal work or by means of the relationship of officials, in any case, scholars or persons whose relationship to the nature of leasing.

The rights established are:

• to receive adequate training to perform the work before his departure,
• to receive information about safety standards in the country and resources to be used when the safety of cooperating or tasks are affected
• to full reimbursement of expenses required for residence permits and work in the country of destination (or a similar relationship spouse, descendants included), and the cost of moving their
• to a specific social welfare, for establishing a group insurance paid for by Spanish Cooperation Agency.
• to the immediate attention to its problems, the Spanish diplomatic services in the State of destination,
• to the time that they have acted as collaborators merit is computed as evaluated in the public calls that relate to international cooperation. Measures to facilitate the reintegration into employment on their return.

The duties are set out:

• proper conduct in the territory of destination, while respecting local laws and customs and decisions of the authorities provided they do not violate the Universal Declaration of Human Rights or the International Covenants
• notify and register their arrival at the Consulate and the Technical Cooperation Office.

The current level of social workers in the field of international cooperation is not very high, however, specialization in the field of cooperation and the activities carried out, make it a source of employment. Knowledge is required intensive management of projects and grants, identification of basic needs and have the capacity to adapt and work in situations with a high level of stress. The applicant must have extensive knowledge in community leadership, endogenous development processes, cooperatives, associations, etc.

Work closely with local organizations and community and through different participatory techniques of needs assessment (SWOT, brainstorming, problem trees, etc.) Prepare the project emanated directly from the subjects themselves and will exercise a mediator, being the most desirable the local counterparts throughout the process leading directly, avoiding the social worker’s role.

All functions and activities must be consensual, being able to list the following:

• Project identification and formulation
• Comprehensive monitoring of activities involved in the project
• selection of staff involved in the project
• representation of non-governmental organization for development with the public authorities, community and beneficiaries.
• realization of narrative reports to justify interventions

Social workers are considered managers or project coordinators and implementers, a role that is reserved for local social workers or related professionals. The problems or challenges that face most often can be summarized as two blocks:

• the problem of adaptation to the new reality. Adequate training is essential for precise reality to intervene;
• working with partners requires the commitment of both in the implementation plans of activities, expenditure control and representation, what is required to agreed procedures and under conditions of equality.

It must be from the reality of the target populations in order to extract the needs felt by them through group dynamics. Requires adaptability to adjust to what is needed at any given time.

The relationship of social work practice with international cooperation becomes important when one considers that much of the tools, skills and knowledge acquired during training and the experience of everyday conform to both the design and implementation of projects cooperation, although it does require additional training to adapt to the new field of action in which play roles in international relations and programming, among others.

May. Basic concepts of international cooperation projects

A project is the logical structure of the components of an intervention to transform a situation or produce a new situation. A program is a concept much broader planning and a plan is even a more general concept. Any plan is divided into programs and these in turn are composed of specific projects, which typically offer only a par tial solution to a problem or a reality on which to intervene.

A project is a mode of intervention involving a change of reality. The development cooperation projects are a series of actions and activities aimed at improving the quality of life of human groups in underdeveloped countries, starting its own analysis of priorities and its socio-cultural reality and require two relevant elements:

• determining a purpose and specific objectives.
  • Media selection

All aid process identifies three areas or functions:

• action on the ground
  • • support the implementation
    • financial aid

Objectives and methods are conditions for successful implementation, which will be essential for a specific election and the determination of priority and careful planning and detailed information on:

• the time required for execution
• specific resources, materials, human and technical
• budget that will undertake the development and implementation

They are similar to any other project but should be highlighted a number of features, such as participation of the local initiative, its sustainable as the environment, integrated and flexible character, etc. Require some minimum conditions without which any activity is doomed to failure:

• relative social stability,
• economic infrastructure and basic social
• minimal living standards, as significant component distinguishes the cooperation of the emergency and humanitarian aid.

Cooperation projects for development are integrated as they affect various sectors and the development of a community or human group is a sum of them as,

• partnership development and corporate
• entrepreneurship,
• urbanism and housing
• rural development
• education and culture
• preventive and curative care, etc.

By contrast, the emergency projects addressing health aid, logistics and food.

The planning is divided into a series of stages, a life cycle consisting of four consecutive phases but interact with each other, part of a cycle may influence another, which can lead to a change of conditions and factors as a project is under constant revision:

• Project ID: defines the purposes and referred the situation is to change, usually expressed in terms of problems.

The first task focuses its attention on establishing the characteristics of the situation we want to achieve and the means for its achievement. Sine qua non is the summary of information about physical and human environment because measures in other regions or communities are not always extrapolate because of the specificity of each human group.

It should also be taken into account the need to integrate into plans or programs linked to policies designed for international cooperation in multilateral agencies or donors. The projects are agreed on the basic performance unit of intervention, adjusted for larger programs, in turn linked to national and international policies.

Given scarce resources, the guarantees of success with great force to specify the purpose or specific targets. The selection realistically adjusted to the time and resources is of paramount importance, and the absence of undesirable effects

The effectiveness will depend on the knowledge of the population, environment, needs, demands and interactions and therefore will require all parties concerned on the consequences.

The importance of identification of action is that this stage provides the basis for the implementation and satisfaction, so it will be necessary to determine:

• action levels (grassroots)
• support (support NGO, government, private economic actors, etc.).
• aid (NGO and state institutions for funding or other)
• representative organizations, community and voluntary nature of the beneficiaries and
• the roles they and who are the direct and indirect beneficiaries, especially those excluded.

Consensus ensure greater awareness and the possibility and necessity of having the necessary support because otherwise not only deprive the action, but may lead to obstacles to the operation and completion.

It is necessary to conduct a feasibility study for the project to ensure the right thing, so you have to consider the future possibilities of the new situation expected.

• Design and development: the producer of the strategy, evaluating its feasibility and precision of the institutional framework that will sustain

Design is the written transcript of all aspects in the preceding phase: the translation of the purpose, means and possibilities that allow the viability of the project. Understand the rationale for the essence of the intervention and the selection of this option among others through a detailed description of each of the aspects taken into account in the initial phase, not only the precise enumeration of the media, but how they can be supplemented and the reasons for their selection and the criteria for their choice in addition to the positive and negative, immediate and future, actual and potential use.

One aspect is the financing, the financial resources necessary for its implementation, which must be picked up as a budget in which expenses and specifies the means or support, those which are not available but are likely to be subsequently made and forecast the expected increase of the costs of the operation. In its concreteness and specificity depend on the viability of both entities will allow the intervention as they cooperate.

The design may be changed and reviews, usually from financial institutions, whose recommendations will require an assessment of its effectiveness and the restatement for the reprocessing of it.

• Implementation and monitoring of operational plan that determines the action plans.

The implementation is the Ecuador of the different phases through which runs a project. It is the starting point for the realization of the objectives, procedures and resources. However, the implementation is not as simple as applying, the performance in an environment must always be open to the presence of unpredictable aspects that will facilitate or hinder the implementation of the project.

The flexibility and improvisation is crucial to successful implementation. The unpredictability requires decision and action mechanisms to respond rapidly to what is required coordination and communication between the various actors so as not to bias the consensus.

The ability to address such situations demonstrates the professionalism of the executors of the project. Previous experience is a useful resource of knowledge, therefore, the systematic application of procedures, sometimes may even prove counterproductive, are more a methodological guide to an agreement set in stone.

The joint participation of all stakeholders will allow the negotiations to address instability. Coordination and distribution of roles can promote the realization of the activities.

At the junction between the aims and objectives with the procedures, it is desirable that the actors share the terminology and conceptual framework as a guarantee.

The monitoring is accompanied by the implementation itself as changing the sequence of procedures applied, parallel and simultaneously is undertaking monitoring and control thereof. The monitoring form the basis of analysis and information source on their compliance, variation or deviation from the plan and the objectives to be achieved.

The control and supervision are important because they oversee the essence of the basis on which settled the initial consensus of the intervention. Since it was issued suggesting alternatives to deal with unpredictable situations from which return to the aims and objectives of the action and redirect, correct or straighten the actions that distort the nature of the project.

It is important to select indicators for a correct reading of operations, such as indicators of social, political, cultural, economic, technical, organizational and environmental. The observations and recommendations are contained in reports that become instruments for the adoption of subsequent decisions.

This phase is the epicenter of the future appreciation of the action appears designed and where the professionalization and specialization of world cooperation.

• The assessment, considering their impact positive or negative. Constitutes the final stage which responds to the intentions and respond to questions such as whether they have achieved the aims and objectives. There are several types:
  • • Ex ante, measures the reliability and feasibility
    • Durante, interactions and modifications
    • Closing at the end and the immediate assessment
    • Ex post, after a certain time after the end

It seeks to confirm the positions of the previous phase: a predictable conclusions activity as it develops the project. Arrival is the situation where is the analysis of all parties and measures the degree of satisfaction of the actors through a detailed examination of procedures and resources, decisions and whether they have complied with the criteria.

Not rated but the weighting of the decisive aspects, taking into account the assessment and judgments that are made about the effectiveness, quality and adequacy of resources, procedures, tools and actors involved.

It is therefore only descriptive but also explanatory, undertook the task of judging the mistakes, difficulties, responsiveness, etc., becoming an important source of information and training for future developments.

Item 3. Decolonization, development and cooperation

1. Introduction: a brief diachronic analysis of decolonization

The political domination between communities is as old as man himself. Speaking of colonization is to describe and evaluate the history of mankind, the colonization and political control is the study of power relations, colonization is an exercise of power, regardless of cultural connotations, social, economic or political domination or conquest.

From the fifteenth century ‘the known world “is divided among several states that make up Western Europe. The rest of the continents were in European hands. The subsequent political independence of those areas and subsequent decolonization measures a little over four centuries, ending after the First World War.

Means colonization / decolonization to a precise historical period, on the eve of the First War and completed in the fifties. Colonial occupation in 1914 extended to 99% from Oceania, Africa 90% and 56% in Asia. In half a century is made the dismantling of the great empires, beginning joined the global conflict.

With the rise of nationalism in Germany and Italy imperialism leading to World War II limarán the friction between two ideologies: capitalism and communism. The need for joint efforts to fight a common enemy of Nazism and violence sleepy differences that regrow after the defeat of the Axis: Italy, Germany and Japan.

One of the most important consequences of the new order emerged after the Second War in the field of International Relations, is the completion of a multipolar world, the relationship between various powers. The big states like Germany, Italy and Japan were defeated by the Nazis occupied France, Great Britain, who knew no occupation, succumbed economically, United States, which had remained isolated from international developments, became the great power of the West The political and military reserve democracy over communism.

The new world order ushered in a bipolar world powers composed of two ideological, economic and nuclear. The rest, decimated its infrastructure, resorted to alliances with one of the two to preserve the system and guarantee the territorial integrity. The Yalta Conference of 1945 opened a new period in the history of international relations.

The Cold War years until the death of Stalin in 1953 were characterized by fear of a third war and nuclear combat. Since 1955, the relaxation period gives way to a more sedate but no stranger to conflicts like the Korean War or the Suez Canal, one of the central episodes of decolonization.

It is in this process of emancipation of the colonies will be resolved by adopting ways and very different or opposing models:

• On the one hand, the bitter hostility of the opposition of the mother country against subversive movements for independence, as the case of Algeria’s 58, which also struck down the Fourth French Republic.
• Across the hemisphere, the independence of India in 1947 is almost paradigmatic model of emancipation and decolonization by peaceful means.

The two great powers will assist not only as mere observers. The search for new allies became a common task. The U.S. encouraged the emancipation financial flows, but objected when nationalist movements sympathetic to communist ideology. The seed of independence in the modern political units run by the metropolis. Access to education and culture of certain sectors conditions the awareness of the need to manage for themselves the future of their communities.

Along with the establishment and distribution of zones of influence, Europe broke up too. Western Area shelter under U.S. protection and eastern countries succumbed about the Soviet orbit: Poland, Bulgaria, Romania and Albania in 1945, Hungary in 1947, Czechoslovakia in 1948 and the occupation zone in Germany became the GDR in 1949. The addition of the RFA the Atlantic Pact in 1955, led the USSR to set up the Warsaw Pact.

The Korean War engulfed the public in the sense of impending nuclear war, deterrence was but one element that kept the cataclysm. Khrushchev’s strategy, peaceful coexistence with capitalist societies, encouraged the two powers to colonize influences and followers in the Third World by Amity and Cooperation Agreements signed with Finland as the almost military for border security of USSR, appear the words “Finlandisation” which managed to preserve its political market model and, despite the 1300 km border with the USSR, in exchange for neutrality. The development cooperation became the most useful tool to consolidate the new order.

The causes of colonization do not share a common vertex originates, any explanation must go through the review of the multidimensional factors:

• Political nature. All power builds its structure on the ability to force another to do what you want, political science definition of power. Power is inexorably linked to expansion, as is the establishment of military bases. However, the power is always in relation to others, so it finds its development in interactions with agents of lesser, equal or greater capacity domain.
• Economic nature. This has the greatest sympathy for the theoretical and Marxist ideologues. Lenin said that imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism. Colonies were preserved for the enrichment of the metropolis by the need to invest capital and surplus products, opening new markets and obtaining raw materials, together with the promotion of commercial interests, dragged the industrialized countries to conquer new areas. This interpretation fits with the rise of colonialism from 1878, second phase of the Industrial Revolution.
• Ideological and scientific nature.
• The ideals of Christian values promoted the export performance of the mission on behalf of evangelization and westernization of primitive communities.
• The passion for scientific knowledge revived hopes for the exploration, resulting in the nineteenth century the proliferation of geographical societies

The political history of cooperation for development is relatively recent. The efforts through bilateral agreements between States or through Multilateral agencies have been considerable. However, new global problems erupt, as environmental degradation or elimination of poverty, which is desperately needed.

The General Assembly of the United Nations, has become the forum in which new States denounced the irregularities of the effects of globalization and the need for external action committed to the eradication of poverty. This raises suspicions about the policies of cooperation with regard to their actual capacity to solve global problems. Inequalities are an example of how they have benefited some more than others, highlighting the cultural, commercial, etc. that seem to respond more to their own interests in the industrialized world than to the neutral conception of international solidarity.

2. Conceptual delimitation of the three main concepts

International Relations

Social Science IE determines that constitute a human activity through which people from more than one nation, individually or collectively, enter into relationship.

Celestino del Arenal are considered as the science that deals with international society and its problems from the perspective of peace, seen not only as the absence of conflict but as the full realization of man, which the author includes underdevelopment and uneven development between states, hunger, deprivation, socioeconomic, environmental problems, why this notion should cover all social relations that shape the international society, both a political and non political, both those are between States as taking place between actors and between them and the States.

Antonio Truyol defined as those relationships between individuals and communities in their genesis and effectiveness have not been exhausted within a distinct community and as a whole, which primarily but not exclusively, is the political community or state, but cut its limits.

Identification with foreign policy or international is wrong.

• Foreign policy refers to the way in which a State conducts relations with other states must be viewed from a purely intrastate.
• international policy covers not only the external action, but the whole set of international relations giving rise to the interstate system, it differs from international relations in which they no longer have any relations to purely political study of the international system, includes that are of a different nature. Although these two expressions share links, field observation and study of international relations is broader.

This confusion comes from the youth of international relations as a scientific discipline, especially in our country. They begin their journey in the interwar period in Anglo-Saxon countries and in our country is delayed until the beginning of the transition, is considered as a starting point in the course de1972 adopting a new curriculum and incorporates the new degree Political Science and Sociology with the subject of International Relations, although previously there were incursions from other disciplines such as Diplomatic History or International Law.

As a discipline, International Relations is aimed at understanding, prediction and assessment of relations between states, but corporations, international organizations and NGOs are new actors on the world stage, so it is essential to specify the main notions cooperation and development, given the frequency with which concepts are close but not quite identifiable and different interpretations from existing ideological approaches.

International Society

The notion ‘international community is an expression very close and that has been superimposed regardless of which do not coincide in its entirety. The community includes common values integrators that international society does not take into consideration and yes, on the contrary, the legal structures and / or rules that govern relations between the various actors in the international arena.

International society today is characterized by its comprehensiveness, it being possible to global society, whose most clear example is the United Nations in which 185 sovereign States are represented, with interactions of economic, financial and technological diversity of related fields large number of players. The finding and opening new markets and solidarity activities undertaken by the NGO are clear examples of diversity.

This variety contains another important feature: the interdependence. Globalisation means that many current problems have no solution at the exclusive state, but require a joint response of the international society, such as combating drug trafficking, population growth, environmental issues and poverty. This need for common solutions requires a dynamic relationship of power, domination and influence that make up international society as a society of states.

Development Cooperation

Although recent practice, the etymological root penetrates many decades ago, taking root in the profound and irreversible transformations of the most interesting historical periods and moving: the industrial revolution.

The cultural revolution of the Enlightenment and the political movements of the late eighteenth century and the transformations of the primary sector, with the introduction of machines in the production system, will allow an unlimited progress, thanks to economic growth caused by agricultural industrialization and urbanization.

It also cemented on an increase in international trade and the discovery of new areas that strengthened the idea of unlimited expansion. Liberal political thought contributed to this idea of progress encouraged by the productive yields unparalleled precedent in economic history. The notions of progress, evolution and development, initially drank from these discoveries and innovations that forever transformed the patterns of production and supply side constraints of traditional media.

However, financial crises, the heartbreaking inequalities from 1880 to World War I entailed a change of mentality, played by the Marxist-Leninists.

Assumed the cyclical crises of the market economic model, a third alternative was congealing on the basis of capitalism: interventionism. The Keynesian theory, based on the nationalization of unprofitable companies, the increase in emoluments, transfers expansive social policy took on the urgency of a change in production and development the core question on which rested the notion of progress: the property deprived of the means of production. Keynesianism becomes a compromise between two diametrically opposed theories and the Marshall Plan became the first model of cooperation for the development of societies devastated by World War II.

The success of the emerging model known as the Welfare State, encouraged by the successful results of the 50 and 60, restored confidence in the growth and development under the rubric of economic growth. The effects of the Cold War and the need for the ex-metropolis to keep influence over its former colonies, advocated in the field of development cooperation, the likelihood of exporting its model of economy to foreign trade in economic infrastructure , market and reform of institutions, especially given the fear that the abandonment of these areas fall under the influence of communism. This became an exponent factor in determining the policy of cooperation.

WW Rostov, one of the toughest advocates, promotes identification with the notion of development cooperation. In his opinion the market is the way to solve the economic problem. The free movement of capital, goods and workmanship help to achieve the fair allocation of resources and promote growth. Modernization Theory suggest that, with the help of advanced countries, the poorest must follow the steps recommended by the industrialized states.

The neo-Marxist structuralism suggest as an alternative, intellectual creation based on dependency theory:

• underdevelopment is a direct consequence of capitalist imperialism
• there is no alternative for the abandonment of the characteristics of the market society, generating national and international inequalities
• transform the socio-economic pillars of these communities and replace them with socialist production bases
• the abandonment of the global market suggested by the West.

The energy crisis of 1973, when the questioning of the welfare state, will strengthen the Marxist theory: capitalism carries the seeds of its own destruction. The gradual abandonment of Keynesian compact development alternatives promoted by the more pronounced differences between liberalism and communism regenerator. Anisi David has said Western governments after 1973 tended to similar economic policies, following the OECD guidelines and IMF. The welfare state was created based on an agreement signed by the marketfear and convenience. The fall of the rate of profit and the social climate deterioration resulted in the convenience, and bloc politics that fear was lower. He was aware that taking investment lacking a more precise planning and objectives defined, did not contribute to the development of Third World and the time it was source of turbulence.

This allowed to return the meaning of development and its incompatibility with purely economic aspects, which will lead to greater distance between them.

Economic growth was challenged before the need to prioritize the quality of life issues affecting the persistence of the globe. The planet can not withstand the population growth, massive exploitation of raw materials and the effects of pollution, so they begin to express their resistance to aggression. Corrective measures were indispensable passed by a change in attitude and policy focused on the specificity of the problems of the neediest countries in international aid.

In this context will make an appearance “sustainable development” or sustainable (in Latin America), which presupposes a humanization of the production system more in line with the real needs of the population and the notion of development. The 80 represent a turning point between economic growth on the one hand and development on the other. becomes aware that the economic growth supervivienda holds dangers for the planet and, alone, does not necessarily positive for companies.

3. The regulatory principles of the concept of development

The right to development is a right of peoples to an individual right, although the United Nations determined that the right social (collective) should have the human (individual) as the subject of any action leading to development. Thus, states that the people need to reaffirm faith in fundamental rights, in the dignity and worth of every human being must be committed to social progress and increased quality of life within the concept of freedom.

There is no rule explicitly refers to the right to development, but resolutions, agreements, … adopted by the General Assembly, always collect implicit commitment to the. K. Vasak, points out, human rights solidarity, which implies the right to peace, environmental ecosystem clean, self-determination and the right of peoples to their development and exploitation of their resources and to promote their heritage.

• The UN, the UN Charter, is committed to promoting higher standards of living, full employment, conditions of economic progress and development, problem solving international economic, social, health and universal respect human rights and fundamental freedoms. Such cooperation should be undertaken within the framework of equality before the law without any discrimination based on race, sex, language and religion –
• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides you the great aspiration of every human being is living in a world overwhelmed by the misery and fear, so that “Everyone has the right to obtain the satisfaction of economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality “, to” a standard of living adequate for her and her family, health and well-being, including food, clothing, housing, medical care and necessary social services “, principles which have inspired the public system of welfare state benefits.
• A notion of development, although addressed to the collective more precisely, is in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 66 and the PID Civil and Political Rights which includes “the right of all peoples to self-determination and freely dispose of its wealth and resources and in no case may a people be deprived of its own means of subsistence ‘, which is the collective dimension of the concept of development.

Certain resolutions of the General Assembly, made aware that development involves a comprehensive concept of both the person and of groups, we recommend transforming the international economic order to eradicate poverty. It is very important in the statement referred to the inalienable right to development as well as equal opportunities, compensatory dimension of equality before the traditional sense which involves only equality before the law

This legal framework would be incomplete without taking into consideration numerous conventions focused on the most vulnerable groups, such as the Rights of the Child (1989), the CI discrimination against Women and all measures taken by agencies attached to the United Nations such as the ILO.

It can be concluded that the development is recognized as:

• an inalienable right of the person and of peoples
• development is linked to economic progress
• social elements should also be taken into account

Involves more than an ethical duty and their realization depends on the availability and use of existing resources. The right to development is essential for individual and collective freedom is a reality and is inextricably linked to fundamental rights and freedoms. The World Conference on Human Rights specifies: “the right to development is an inalienable human right by virtue of which every person and all peoples are entitled to participate in and contribute to sustainable economic, social, cultural and political environment in which they can be fully all human rights and all fundamental freedoms and to benefit from this right. “

4. Conceptual and ideological dimensions of the concept of development

As a concept within the scope of the Social Sciences, is subject to constant change and interpretation and its political and economic connotations as described in the shelter of the ideological spectrum. The various backgrounds and political positions determine its relationship with economic development (liberalism versus socialism) and the different areas variously interpreted. Since anthropology emphasizes the persistence of endogenous characteristics of the community against economistic theories, supported more in the overvaluation of exogenous characteristics.

In short, the absence of a single model or paradigm precludes an accurate and consensual implementation so it is more correct to speak of models of development and function of the concept is used, the interpretations will be used as macro-economic or social criteria scales far from the quantitative results.

In terms of political and ideological assimilation with other terms is obvious:

• Liberalism: economic growth.
• Social democracy: social right
• Communism: A social revolution.

The bibliography is extensive and reveals the preference of one model or another. Thus, the notion introduced by Fernando Almansa, differs from the World Bank reports. According to the author, “development is a process of unlimited growth, but a search for balance in the use of wealth (goods and services) involves a process of redistribution and combating the structural causes of poverty (injustice) and therefore it is not isolated but integrated actions to develop a comprehensive program of structural transformation, and that otherwise would not lead to development cooperation. “

Ideological trends are found also in the various actors involved in cooperation. Overcoming strict governmental role and the role by the social partners (business) or other sectors (NGO) is shared. The bankrupt communist countries has contributed to the consolidation of the democratic model and expansion but also of competitive society, and therefore, the use of the market as more effective instrument for development.

The lack of uniformity leads to the regulatory framework which provides a conceptually defined purpose: the eradication of poverty and fear. Sustainable development, expression began to be released from Brundthlan Report prepared by the World Commission on Environment and Development United Nations in 1987, provides not only an eco-friendly growth, but includes social connotations summary three variables:

• Material well-being, enjoy decent housing, health, food and clothing.
• Physical safety of any violent demonstration against usurper of dignity.
• Collective identity of the peculiarities in the framework of freedoms.

Constituent elements of the notion of development, basic and elementary, but worthy of consensus. The means to determine the dichotomy facing the underdeveloped world: either the imitation or the search for new formulas.

May. Policy cooperation: official development assistance (ODA)

The International Cooperation for Development has become the centerpiece of the external action of developed states. Despite the advances and the emergence of new actors cooperating foreign policy continues to define designs and implementations of policies, so that any action in cooperation is conditioned by them, which does not prevent national interests remain and coexist with genuine intent to collaborate in the development of the neediest countries.

Therefore, the policy of cooperation for development is understood as the field of foreign policy of a State, in the interests of economic progress, social, cultural and political development of the underdeveloped countries, made available through a package of resource materials financial and human.

Although used interchangeably in development assistance cooperation, these notions have an important etymological difference.

• Cooperate means co-ordination of both parties with a common strategy in which the interest and benefit is mutual.
• development aid is synonymous with giving, selfless and is not shared, involves a transfer.

In economic terms, cooperation involves a transfer of resources with some degree of concessionality, such as fiscal measures, financial or tariff. However, as the Third World circumstances have changed, and the need for global solutions to common problems such as environmental degradation, the model of cooperation based solely on economic growth, has adopted a multidimensional way. Today it is inconceivable to contemplate the poverty and underdevelopment as a homogeneous reality, there dle to distinguish between Developing Countries (PVD) Least Developed Countries (LDCs) and Transition Countries, Central and Eastern Europe, where advanced ODA has no consideration, but of Official (AO)

Still considered necessary financial resources but also takes into account present, other forms of cooperation including modernization of the institutions (the democracy clause, and respect for the rights and freedoms otherwise terminate aid), development of a system modern scientific-technological and indigenous or increasing the skills of the workforce in the country aid applicant

Official Development Assistance can be defined as the area of international cooperation dedicated to working with developing countries or developing nations to achieve economic and political progress. Official is the source of public funds, managed by public institutions or channeled as grants, so it is necessary to distinguish it from others in the private sphere of civil society, and managed by commercial agents or NGO.

Given the heterogeneity of definitions and the diversity of the developing world and donor countries, the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of OECD countries considered it necessary to clarify what is meant by Development Cooperation to establish guidelines applicable, criteria that determine ODA elements that all must meet to be considered by the international community as a genuine development aid. Allow commercial interests, financial or donor nature of agreeing to certain requirements for the development cooperation policy does not become a mere instrument of foreign policy of a country to promote their interests.

It qualifies as ODA when they meet the following criteria:

• The aid is aimed at improving economic development and living standards in the receiving country.
• The funds come from government in the form of grants or loans or soft loans.
• The element of concessionality of these loans is at least 25% or 50% for LDCs.
• The applicant country must belong to the category of countries eligible for aid according to the actual CAD

6. The instruments of official development assistance

Bilateral Cooperation

Flows from the donor country government sources to developing countries through grants or soft loans repayable over terms for financing and subsequent repayment. The relations are established directly between the donor and recipient or an NGO. When resources are channeled multilaterally but the donor country that establishes which country will receive the help or what projects will be financed with funds contributed, these contributions are called Multi-bilateral cooperation.

Bilateral cooperation can be, therefore, in turn:

• Reimbursable: they are not grants, but loans, although the conditions are more comfortable than the rules of the market, which allows them to be categorized as development assistance. One way is for loans associated with the acquisition of goods and services in the donor country. To avoid unfair competition between developed nations, the OECD, through the Helsinki Package established requirements for ODA and avoid becoming a means of marketing the donor country. The only run the General State Administration.
• Non-Refundable: includes programs and projects and emergency food aid, and aid and grants to NGOs, and are donated. Are carried out covers the administrations.

Therefore, it is distributed as follows:

Financial cooperation

• Microcredit line.
• Credits related to the procurement of goods and national services in Spain are referred to the Assistance Fund appropriations for Development (FAD).
• External debt reorganization

Cooperation nonfinancial

• Programs and projects.
• Food aid.
• Emergency assistance.
• Grants to NGO.

Multilateral Cooperation

Is the contribution that the donor country makes to international bodies, of a financial nature or not. They are made by the Central Government and may be a contribution, fees or both, which usually happens.

The mandatory fees are part of the budget that the donor country should make as a member of a given OI, ratified its membership and therefore has the character of legal obligation.

Are voluntary contributions, each donor country unilaterally decide each year how many resources devoted to funding of programs and funds, setting their priorities.

An organization is classified as multilateral if:

• it is a body, institution or international organization whose members are governments or a fund managed by a multilateral agency.
• together in a common fund amounts received so that they lose their identity and become part of their financial assets.

This type of cooperation is achieved through three instruments:

• Contributions to the EU. Cooperation policy is articulated through:
• European Development Fund (EDF) for an extraordinary and the ACP (African, Caribbean and Pacific)
• the Community budget for development cooperation (PCCD) of ordinary character, destined to finance cooperation with developing countries not considered ACP.
• Contributions to International Financial Organizations (OIF) resources of its members captured and channeled to developing countries to finance imports, programs and projects or as direct support to the balance of payments. OIF These include: the World Bank, IMF and Regional Development Banks: Ibero-American Development Bank, African Development Bank, Asian Development Bank and European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
• International Organizations Contributions to Non-Financial (OINF) aim to promote cooperation in the educational, scientific, technological, health, labor, social and political. They are mainly UN agencies active in chapters designated as the United Nations Fund for Children (UNICEF) and United Nations Organization for Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).

7. The distribution of cooperation by sectors and geographical areas

The distribution is done from two sides:

• Country or areas: determine which countries or regions will benefit from the aid.
• When it comes to Multilateral Cooperation is the IO who determines where to disburse the amount of aid
• on Bilateral Cooperation for the donor country to decide, although the selection is to be determined by the criteria set by the DAC that limits eligibility and the HIPC Initiative, establishing a list of potential candidates.
• Sectoral distribution: Non-Refundable Bilateral ODA is divided into two main clusters, which in turn divided into subsectors, which specifies the specific use of funding:
• the group of economic and social sectors, comprising: distributable contributions. Each of the sub-branches for a very specific items
• Social infrastructure and services:
• Education: educational facilities and training, educational policy and administration, teacher training, college education, basic training for youth and adults, vocational training, etc.
• Health: medical services, basic infrastructure, training of health workers, infectious disease control, health education, health policy and administration, etc.
• Population: reproductive health care, family planning, staff training, public policy and administration, fight against sexually transmitted diseases, etc..
• purification and water supply: minor and major systems for water supply and purification, protection of water resources, river basin development, solid waste treatment, etc..
• government and civil society: legal and judicial development, strengthening civil society, electoral processes, mine clearance, consolidation of peace, economic planning and development, etc.
• Other social infrastructure and services: Social security and social services, recreation, drug control, scientific and research institutions, low-cost housing, colonization and settlements, employment policy, culture and leisure activities.
• Sector of economic infrastructures and services:
• Transport and storage. Waterborne transport, air and road, etc..
• Communications: radio, television, newspapers, telecoms and communications policy and administrative management.
• energy: nuclear and hydro, wind, solar and geothermal energy production, renewable sources, etc.
• banking services: financial policy, financial intermediaries, etc.
• Productive sectors:
• Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries: water resources for agriculture, food production, livestock, crops intended for export or industry, crop protection, pest control, etc.
• Industry, mining and construction: SME development, pharmaceutical production, seabed resources, industry and handicraft, etc.
• Trade and tourism: tourism policy, wholesale and retail trade, etc.
• Multisectoral:
• are grouped various initiatives aimed, inter alia, to:
  • and flood control,
  • heritage protection
  • biodiversity
  • Women and development
  • urban management, etc.
• Sector group to include General Purpose Development contributions are not distributable:
  • Goods Aid and Assistance Programs
  • Emergency Help
  • External Debt
  • Administrative costs
• They are divided into more specific purposes among which are:
• Food aid
• Forgiveness, restructuring and refinance debt
• Exchange of debt for development projects
• Disaster Emergency Assistance
• Aid to refugees
• Support local and regional NGOs
• Promotion and awareness for cooperation.

8. The actors in aid

International player means the authority (person, group or organization) capable of mobilizing sufficient resources to influence the international environment. The changes occurred by globalization have led to the emergence of new actors acting in competition with the international actor par excellence: the State, which, in the field of cooperation, has retained its leading role, despite the role acquired by transnational agencies and intergovernmental agencies, highlighting the EU institutions.

Government institutions and

Although not all activities related to cooperation exhausted by a single government department, it is common to appoint the foreign ministry in charge of Cooperation, creating administrative units for the exercise and performance of specific functions. In Spain they were created a State Secretariat General (SECIPI, Secretary of State for International Cooperation and Ibero-America) and the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation (AECI), among others.

The Autonomous Communities have led to greater decentralization of the system that has allowed both regional governments and local authorities play a not inconsiderable task in the field of cooperation. This contribution, made through their budgets, is carried out through grants and subsidies transferred to NGOs, with the solidarity funds intermunicipal character. The first European conference on cities and development grew joint action between the NGO and local authorities. These funds have become an instrument for the management of aid, among them:

• The Fons Català de per al Desenvolupament Cooperation 1986
• Euskal Fondoa 1988
• the Fons Valencià for Solidarity in 1993.

Since 1991, Local Bodies and Autonomous involved in the preparation of the Annual Plans of International Cooperation, providing forecast data and grants and subsidies. Corresponding to its programs and activities are provided by the CCAA, while local entities is done through the FEMP. This participation by the local authorities under the Official Decentralized Cooperation (COD), regulated by the Law on International Cooperation for Development and subject to guidelines established by the parliament and central government.

Intergovernmental Organizations

They are associations of states for the achievement of targets for which have autonomy and administrative structure and resources. In cooperation are the protagonists of multilateral aid known and, therefore, diverted resources to international organizations carrying out their work in promoting the progress of developing countries.

The best known is the UN, a universal character, which is subdivided into specialized agencies each with specific functions in an area of interest, such as WHO, FAO, UNICEF …

Other organizations such as OECD narrower so that brings together countries from different continents dispersed or OPEC, made up of oil-producing states. Other particularly important are the EU itself, NATO or the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).

The Non-Governmental Development

This boom is closely related to the consolidation of democratic values in industrialized societies. The pioneer is the International Red Cross (1863), especially in emergency aid.

They differ from NGOs in its external action, intended to pursue the development of disadvantaged peoples, although they share certain elements that identify them as independent and autonomous character, their social nature, their non-profit performance and legal personality. Its objectives can be summarized in two key areas:

• implementation of projects or development programs in developing countries
• the channeling of financial resources both public and private.

Other functions should be taken into account as Public awareness campaigns: they have taken an important critical role, denouncing and demanding a greater commitment to international solidarity in the country which also serve to raise awareness of the population to be agent active in cooperative projects and programs approved.

For reasons of efficiency and coordination was established International Council of Voluntary Agencies (ICVA). Recently, the establishment of the EURO-ACTION to transform the model and move from mere emergency aid to the macro and projects.

Their freedom of action is hampered by the lack of amounts for larger projects or a more appropriate professional. Their work makes them “islands in the vast ocean of underdevelopment and basically can only play a secondary role.”

Large companies

Corporate partnership starts from the years 1960-1970, in order to promote and encourage the entrepreneurial capacity of developing countries.

They are an important means of promoting the internationalization of SMEs and to acquire technical knowledge and management. European country promoting activities through Financial Development Corporations with inter joint projects

They have proved wary of the involvement of companies, as was presumed concealment of commercial interests, but gradually becoming aware of the opportunity of participation in global development, provided that compliance with the following two requirements:

• in any case, the participation of enterprises should reduce or replace the investment of official development aid.
• that obtaining a commercial interest does not show its incompatibility with the solidarity principle governing the development cooperation.

Item 4. International political and community cooperation

1. Introduction: development cooperation in the international system

The first major initiative was not as beneficiaries of the Third World countries. European countries devastated by World War I and the threat of the spread of communism, urged the victorious powers to design the first model of cooperation for European reconstruction, and was made possible by the Marshall Plan, whose contributions were the first accumulation of capital for the creation of the welfare state.

This initial model was replaced by the cooperation of the industrialized countries to the process of decolonization, former colonies with which bonds narrowed to retain political influence.

The dynamics of the Cold War blocs impose this attitude in an open battle, with great analogy to the Berlin Wall divided the African and Asian continents in potential recipients of aid from the West or the communist system, which will characterize the profile international cooperation policy. Both variables must be taken into account to understand the evolution of development cooperation.

Thus, rich countries become States and needy recipients of funds for reconstruction in donor states, grouped in the Organization for Cooperation and Economic Development (OECD), established in 1960, which is divided into committees of contents specifically to promote economic expansion and global trade. In order to avoid unfair competition and prevent cooperation with the Third World become currency trading, will agree to establish binding principles and a common meaning for all. For this, the OECD created the OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) as a special committee and has become the forum for agreeing the terms of cooperation.

In order to improve the volume, quality and efficiency goals, was held a consultation and agreements between the agencies responsible for aid management, with the participation of the World Bank, IMF and UNDP United Nations. The result was the adoption of general guidelines, a reference point for orientation and adjustment policies applied by each country cooperation. To be respected, the CAD is monitoring the implementation of these fundamentals and made public through regular publications annual reports consisting of the degree of compliance and recommendations for restructuring and policy changes.

As grounds, the CAD states that underdevelopment can only be overcome if applied economic strategies and policies:

• contribute to sustained growth,
• ensure compliance and environmental conservation of ecosystems
• provide a fairer distribution of economic performance
• allow the active participation of the population in the productive and social system in a democratic framework, which implies respect for fundamental rights and freedoms to and the laws that constitute the rule of law.

This notion of participatory development are the new guidelines and strategies for achieving sustained economic growth.

These principles include a number of observations from which stresses the need for the aid granted in any case not ignore the political situation, economic, social and recipients, without regard to any program whose cooperation is doomed to fail hopelessly.

The main reason for the principles arises from the concern that causes tied aid is an important instrument. The establishment of bases as set out monitoring and observation from the supply of domestic goods and services that do not take into account the real needs of the recipient country. Tied aid is not questioned, but excessive and uncontrolled use, where the interests of industrialized countries can subvert nature cooperation.

Tied aid favors the acquisition of objects indispensable to the production structure of developing country, so it is complementary to the financial assistance that are often meager. Scarce financial resources that have the developing countries, coupled with its inability to obtain foreign currency, tied aid are in an important tool to increase its imports.

Dysfunctions that can lead to unregulated application has led to conceptually establish and delimit the conjunction between the interests of donor and recipient needs and priorities, establishing common criteria to prevent unfair competition, which led to the recognition that is developing countries which account for setting priorities and that the responsibility for aid coordination lies with each recipient government.

2. Origin and development of Community policy

Although the Rome Treaty explicitly includes development cooperation at the initiative of France settled the first measures of cooperation and assistance. The EC, in order to promote economic and social development of countries and territories included the cooperation model that allowed him to have relations with its former colonies, focusing on the elimination of customs barriers. It is considered the first initiative in the field of development cooperation.

When in 1973 the UK joined the EC, imposed as a condition of continuity of its relations with its former colonies of the Commonwealth, considered as an antecedent to the Lomé Conventions that govern the policy.

In 1982, the “memorandum Pisan ‘, was intended to establish a policy more in line with the conception of development and whose objectives were:

• Promoting rural development and food self-sufficiency
• Increasing human resources and cultural care
• Develop autonomous capabilities of R & D
• Using a systematic way the available natural resources
• Restore and conserve the ecological balance

The final episode is the adoption in 1992 of the Maastricht Treaty, which establishes the Title XVII of the development cooperation and determined that the Community cooperation policy is complementary to the State and establishes the following objectives:

• combating poverty in developing countries
• balanced and continuous integration of these countries into the global economy
• economic development and social development, especially the most backward countries.

Both the EC and Member States comply with the commitments and targets set by the UN and other international organizations, whose aims include the promotion and consolidation of democracy, the rule of law and respect for fundamental rights and freedoms.

To implement these objectives be adopted multi-annual programs and policies that may be developed and coordinated with the Member States, the same can contribute to the implementation of such programs. Similarly, the EC and Member States cooperate with third countries and international organizations, regardless of the individual work.

The fact of integrating the development cooperation policy in a separate chapter of the Treaty makes it an area in itself. Also shares the principle of subsidiarity to understand that the EC will intervene only when the objectives can not be achieved by the Member States.

Furthermore, the Maastricht Treaty sets out the bodies in the development and implementation of cooperation policy. Thus, for the Commission to propose any initiative and the Council of Ministers to decide on proposals made previously by the Commission. The institutional weakness of the European Parliament is reflected in the design of development policy, as the sole representative assembly plays an advisory role. However, since the entry into force of the Single Act allows the Parliament to amend the legislative initiatives and the adoption of the budget.

The Single European Act, adopted in 1987, substantially expanded the powers of Parliament, granting, inter alia, the right to monitor more and more policy areas, such as development cooperation policy, but does not provide mechanisms for coordination between Community and states. The Treaty came to strengthen the position of parliament and, since then, the Commission may request the drafting of new bills and dismiss a motion of censure supported by two thirds of the camera

Since 1993, the EU has continued to produce reports, resolutions and communications directly related to development cooperation, to expand the legal framework of reference. The report from that year shows that EU policy does not have its own model of cooperation and, moreover, seems to have imported some liberal economic concept, as evidenced by support for adjustment programs of IMF and World Bank, whose results are always in the forefront of criticism and questioning.

3. Development of the Yaoundé Conventions to the Cotonou Agreement

The Treaty of Rome represents the beginning of the development cooperation of the European Community with the developing countries. As a direct result and establishing the community, Yaoundé Convention was signed in 1963, for cooperation with African states, constituting the cornerstone of a collaborative process. In 1969, was extended, giving rise to the Yaoundé II Convention.

The Cotonou Agreement, which entered into force on April 1, 2003, and signed on June 23, 2000 by the EU after the ratification of 76 ACP States, represents a new chapter in cooperation between the EU and the countries African, Caribbean and Pacific after the expiry of the four Lomé Conventions. It involves the adaptation to the new global reality considering the effects of globalization, technological development and changes in the recipient countries themselves, in the framework of the Millennium Development Goals, focusing on the reduction and eventual elimination of poverty and integration into the global economy. For your intended, as priority actions in the economic field:

• invest and help the private sector
• macroeconomic and structural reforms such as liberalization of trade regime
• intensely develop industry, trade and tourism

These initiatives should be activated together with measures of social and political development to policy cooperation is a real development policy:

• Respect for human rights and democratic principles based on the rule of law. An example is found in the measures taken in case of default, as in the case of the 2000 coup d’etat in the Republic of Fiji. The Union decided to suspend certain aspects of aid and in 2003, considering the positive developments, resumed cooperation
• Transparent and accountable management of public affairs
• Good management of public measures, in particular, fighting corruption.
• Making social policy sectors, such as the development of education and health systems
• Specific protection of the rights of children, especially female.

The financial resources available to this Agreement are:

• Own financial resources of the European Investment Bank (EIB) amounting to 1,700 million euros. The EIB was created by the Treaty of Rome as a financial institution of the Union. Takes the form of any banking model, obtaining resources in the capital market. It has been an institution in financial aid to current situations or large projects, but has expanded its scope and at present is not limited only to the Member States, so it has become an agent for financial cooperation PVD, for purposes such as improving competitiveness, the creation and development of essential infrastructure, etc..
• the remnants of the previous European Development Funds totaling more than 9,900 million euros
• and implementation of the ninth EDF by a total of 13,500 million euros.

In previous agreements include measures from the EDF for the protection of exports to the depreciation of prices on raw materials and agricultural products. To this end, initiatives were created STABEX, protection of products such as cotton, coffee or cocoa, and SYSMIN, mining products, which have not been carried over from the changes that the economies of these countries have experienced the effects of globalization

4. The main instrument of EU financial cooperation: the EDF

EU policy is made through grants and loans. The EU has or established mandatory requirements must be met by the recipient country to prevent the use of fraudulently. It requires transparency in management, reduction of military expenditures and scrupulous respect for democracy and fundamental rights and freedoms, conditioning to deepen its democratic structures and political apparatus to direct the pattern of rule of law. Resources are provided through three sources or instruments:

• financial resources of the European Investment Bank (EIB)
• The Community’s own budget, for the countries of the Mediterranean basin, Latin America, Central and Eastern Europe and the Newly Independent States of the former USSR.
• The economic resources of the EDF.

The EDF is the main instrument of support for development cooperation. The Treaty of Rome providing for their creation as technical and financial assistance to African countries that were colonized and that some States had historical links.

Since 1993 the EU budget is a title reserved for the Fund, but is not yet part of the budget but is funded by the States themselves subject to their own rules. It is for ACP countries and Overseas Countries and Territories (OCT). It is envisaged that the support of the OCT is integrated into the general EU budget. The ACP will continue the funding through the EDF, at least until 2013. Are granted and distributed for a period of five years and its historical projection is as follows:

• 1959/1964: 1 FED
• 196411970: Convention of Yaounde 1 (2nd EDF)
• 1970/1975; Yaoundé Convention 11 (3 EDF)
• 1975/1980: Lomé I Convention (4 EDF)
• 1980/1985: Convention of Lomé II (5 EDF)
• 1985/1990: Convention of Lomé III (6 EDF)
• 1990/1995: Convention of Lomé IV (7th EDF)
• 1995/2000: extension of the Lomé IV Convention (8th EDF)
• 2000/2007: Cotonou Agreement (9th EDF).

Today is the only item of Community expenditure is not subject to authorization by the European Parliament, which has opened a process of reflection on the adequacy and effectiveness. Aid to developing countries by the EU takes place through two channels:

• Community budget
• funds from the EDF.

By staying out of the budget, cooperation with ACP countries is excluded from decision-making processes of EU institutions, which reduced visibility in its relations with these areas and increases the risk of remaining marginalized in comparison with other regions of the world

With the enlargement of the Union’s external relations and increased external assistance, the separate funding is not perceived as a privilege but an inconvenience. The integration of all expenses related to development cooperation would have an overall view of total aid, which the Commission has proposed that instead of funding a new EDF, the next budget is the start of a budget funds for cooperation EU and ACP countries.

5. The most popular and visible cooperation between the EU and third world food aid and emergency

Created in 1967, food aid has aimed at the provision of food to achieve food security and self-reliance of affected populations. It involves 20% of total EU aid, placing the EU as one of the top of the DAC countries, covering 40% of the needs of Third World countries.

This implies in turn help improve food production in these countries, rapid response to emergency situations and the integration of new food products capable of adaptation to the dietary habits of recipient populations. This order allows for a subcategory that ‘food aid’

• assistance programs to rebalance the demand for imports and supply of domestic products
• project aid, which involves the direct transfer of food to most vulnerable population groups in order to guarantee and cover their nutritional needs,
• Relief, best known publicly for their humanitarian impact in situations of natural disasters, consequences of war, plagues, etc. It also implies cover all issues that require the restoration of the community, must include medical equipment, supplies and human resources to the attention of various care and requires immediate and effective intervention. Having overcome the first collaboration needs is essential for the restructuring of production and basic infrastructure, making it convenient to distinguish between:
• emergency humanitarian aid itself. It is not regarded as genuine aid to development. The uniqueness stems from the purpose of their actions is not so much to promote the development of the beneficiary as to meet urgent and unforeseen needs. It is an expression of international solidarity, rather than a strict action in favor of development “(José Antonio Alonso).
• humanitarian aid for rehabilitation, which includes programs on the road to reconstruction of the productive, social rehabilitation or restoration of essential services. This is almost a real program of cooperation in relation to time required for the restoration of a minimum social development.

In order to manage this collaboration, created the General Directorate for Humanitarian Aid (ECHO). Since its inception has provided assistance to more than 85 countries and aims to reduce human suffering, for which works with over 200 members, most organizations like the Red Cross

The EU is the biggest donor providing 55% of international humanitarian aid, of which 30% are conducted through ECHO and 25% direct programs of the Member States and financed by the budget EDF general.

In 2001, ECHO adopted a decision procedure that enables faster project approval within 24-72 hours. In the early years attended the earthquakes in El Salvador and India, drought in Asia, 38 mined conflict, the Palestinian Territories, and special attention was paid to so-called “forgotten crises”, which do not attract attention in media or from other donors.

In 2004, in the terrible tsunami that killed nearly 280,000 people in the Indian Ocean, the ECHO was the first who reacted by giving three million euros to the Red Cross and subsequently invested in more than 80 million people affected. The main forgotten crises were located in Algeria (Sahara Occidental), Democratic Republic of Congo, Guinea, Haiti, India, Burma, Somalia, Sudan and Chechnya, among other things ..

6. The geographical distribution of EU development cooperation

The distribution of development aid meets the interests of the Member States regarding its past colonial or political spheres of influence, which explains the link between France and Britain with its former possessions in Africa, Germany in relation to Eastern European countries or the commitment to our country in Latin America. Also changes of the eighties and nineties has forced a redefinition of.

Since 1957, creation of the EC, was restated a new relationship with its former colonies because until then, aid had been granted individually by political and commercial interests. The integration process to modify these emerging policy of cooperation:

• because each of the Member States implementing Community law in their respective domestic
• from a business perspective, given that the EC has outstanding commercial purposes will be strictly enforcing state purposes.

However, the nature of the integration process required to withhold the special interests which explains the African orientation of Community policy. When the UK joins the Union, extending its area to Commonwealth countries, for which in 1975 signed the first Lomé Convention.

Soon you will reach agreements with non-EU Mediterranean countries like Greece and guidance begins to be corrected. The entry of Spain and Portugal in 1986 will be an open mind toward Latin America.

The changes in this decade forced to address the imbalances that occur after the Berlin Wall disappeared. Therefore, the development cooperation process is linked to the construction of European political unity.

ACP Countries: Africa, Caribbean and Pacific

cooperation for excellence has been with these countries. The volume of aid accounted for more than 50% of Community aid by linking the Member States with their former colonies. However, to help diversify the volume of ODA has been declining, while retaining the top of the list of beneficiaries. As the 1.989 million dollars in bilateral aid awarded 1995/1996 Saharan Africa compared to 1035 for Eastern and Central Europe, appreciating the two salient features regarding the distribution of the cooperation of the Community:

January. continuing priority for African countries

2. the bankrupt communist countries of Europe

Since 1975, relations between the ACP and the EU were governed by the Lomé Conventions. One element of this cooperation for development was the approval for manufactured and agricultural products that do direct competition from entering duty free and unrestricted. Throughout these years have been adding new states to 78 at present and in 2000, Cuba became the 79 Under the Cotonou Agreement is a distinction between them depending on their level of development:

• Least developed states of the ACP: Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Equatorial Guinea, Haiti, Kiribati, Lesotho, Liberia, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Madagascar, Mozambique, Niger, Rwanda, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, Timor-Leste, Tuvalu, Togo, Uganda , Vanuatu and Zambia.
• ACP States to develop South Africa (Partial) Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Barbados, Belize, Botswana, Cameroon, Congo (Brazzaville), Cook (islands), Ivory Coast, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Gabon, Ghana, Grenada , Guyana, Jamaica, Kenya, Marshall (islands), Mauritius. Micronesia, Namibia, Nauru, Nigeria, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Dan Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Senegal, Seychelles, Suriname Swaziland, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, and Zimbabwe.
• Landlocked ACP States: Botswana, Urbina Faso, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Ethiopia, Lesotho, Malawi, Mali, Niger, Rwanda, Swaziland, Uganda, and Zimbabwe Zmabia.

The escalation of conflict and community responsibility to help the ACP countries in seeking peaceful solutions and avoid the EU funds are used for military purposes, imposed a review of cooperation and adopted the following precautionary measures:

• freezing of funds pending an investigation and disruption if there is evidence that the funds are diverted to military purposes,
• suspension of aid in case of serious violations of human rights
• suspension in case of sanctions imposed by the Security Council of the United Nations.

This forced the EU to adopt certain guidelines to cases such as armed conflict, the cessation of hostilities and negotiations or the collapse of the government. This was the Fund for Peace Support in Africa that is based on the principle of African emancipation, to support the maintenance of peace and is carried out by organizations of the African Union and subregional organizations. (Resource allocation for long-term development of 9th EDF).

The issue of the economic situation in many of these countries gave notice to take extraordinary measures, making use of unallocated resources in the EDF as grants to cover debt and overall financing (outstanding support for highly-indebted ACP countries)

The countries of Latin America and Asia (ALA)

They are less supported by the area of Community policy, from the point of both quality and quantity. Three seem to be the reasons:

• The absence of a partner with representativeness in the countries of the region.
• the presence of litigation with certain Latin American countries (democratization).
• to be perceived as a zone of influence of the United States.

The first show was in the 70s but was not approved until 1981 Regulation dedicated to European cooperation with these countries. Throughout this process can distinguish various types of agreements are generating various phases of the EU-ALA:

• First Generation of a commercial nature, were signed with Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil and Mexico at 70. The democratization process in the area and the entry of Portugal and Spain in the Community will break the isolation.
• Second Generation is beyond bilateral relations and signed by other areas such as the Andean Group in 1983 and with Central America in 1985, beating and incorporating the commercial nature of democratization.
• Third Generation represent a continuum and are signed between 1990 and 1993, and include the democratic clause as a guarantee.
• Fourth Generation seeks to establish a closer relationship, in particular the creation of a large area of free trade. They are signed with MERCOSUR, Chile, El Salvador, Panama and Mexico from 1995 to 2000.

With Asian countries have experienced similar trends. To avoid losing market share, is the first major agreement signed in 1996 in Bangkok. The low priority in this area is seen by comparing the 5.5 to 7% of the total dedicated to ALA with 30% implemented in ACP countries in Central and Eastern.

The countries of Central and Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CEEC)

With the changing international system, these new areas have led the interest with a view to future enlargement. A feature of this cooperation is its non-recognition as ODA by the DAC. But his interest and geopolitical position has led to a set of bilateral agreements for a future free trade area.

At the time, were the PECOS (Countries of Central and West European) which maintained a deeper relationship with the Union as strong candidates for accession, in particular Bulgaria, Slovakia, Slovenia, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania and Slovakia. Europe Agreements are called the same reason.

• The PECOS.
• The PHARE program was approved to fund the transformation of economic structures and balance their balance of payments, so that has been channeled into economic terms, particularly in enterprise privatization, reform of agricultural and industrial structures, the reordering of the institutions and of public administration. It was introduced in 1990 and was conceived as a technical assistance program to facilitate the process of reforms in its transition to a market society. In just a decade disbursements represented the same percentage as invested in the area of priority countries AUP.
• CARDS program (Community Assistanse for Reconstruction, Development and Stablisation) since 2000, for the reconstruction of Bosnia, Croatia, Macedonia and Serbia and Montenegro.
• The CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) or NIS (Newly Independent States). Was promoted in 1991 the TACIS program, aimed also to Mongolia to support the transition to a market economy and democracy: institutional reforms, promoting private sector, modernization of infrastructure, environmental protection and promotion of rural economy. Represents 9% of the expenditure made by the Union areas.

Mediterranean countries

The strong momentum is produced in the Euro-Mediterranean Conference in 1995, with the approval of the MEDA program among the countries of the Union and the twelve Mediterranean partners, but before they were signed bilateral agreements that can be enumerated as follows:

• Turkey (1963), Malta (1970) and Cyprus (1972) ambitious content to estimate the possibility of eventual accession to the Union.
• Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia (Maghreb) in 1976 and Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria in 1977 (Maschrek), they have permanent favorable trade treatment.
• Israel, 1975, by signing a preferential trade agreement.

Today is the most benefit after the ACP, the CEECs and CIS. The total investment amounted to 5% in the early 90s and late was 15%, which implies a larger increase than that experienced in other areas.

The MEDA program on measures of financial and technical support for the reform of structures within the framework of the Euro, has become the main instrument in the area, to create a free trade area with the following objectives:

• support for SMEs
• the opening of markets
• promoting private investment
• modernization of economic infrastructure
• modernization of financial systems and tax
• improving basic social services
• the consolidation of democracy, human rights and the rule of law
• the participation of civil society
• development of human resources
• promoting trade and cultural cooperation

This has set an amount of 5,350 million euros for the 2000-2006 through grants, venture capital granted by the EIB and interest subsidies for loans.

Since its establishment, the EC maintained a close link with coastal countries. But since 1989, assumes the idea that the southern border was essential to the security of Europe and entails considerable market potential.

7. the importance of joint cooperation with developing countries

The European Union is half the worldwide effort to aid for developing countries and, to a large number of these, is its main trading partner.

The Communication on the implementation of the Monterrey Consensus and the European contribution to the Third World, 2004, shows the volume and relevance of EU aid. This report assesses the commitments made in Barcelona and it is found that has been producing a significant increase in resources. We conclude that the States of the Union increased by nearly 6% of its development aid. It takes into account the ten new members, who spent only 0.03% of its GDP to development aid, but is expected to end in 2006 already. The commitments made in Barcelona were, among others, the following:

• increase the release: moving from 0.33% in 2002 to 0.39% in 2006 as a transitional stage to achieve the 0.7% target set by the UN for the year 2015.
• improve aid effectiveness through a closer coordination and harmonization.
• increase trade-related assistance.
• develop some reforms of international financial systems
• promote the solution of the problem of global public goods.

The level of compliance appears to be on track, but until they make public the balance of 2006 will not be able to have a reliable record, but are identified increases in recent years that confirm the upward trend, as the increase in April, 6 million in 2003, 0.34% of EU GDP.

Are attached to a package of trade initiatives such as the Generalised System of Tariff Preferences (GSP). The objective is the impact on poverty reduction through international trade, thanks to tariff preferences. Among the measures cited include products that are not covered by the current system (almost one tenth). The Commission has proposed to concentrate the GSP for LDCs and most vulnerable developing ones, the size of their economies, have no outlets to the sea, to be SIDS, or other factors that involve additional structural disadvantages.

The GSP is simultaneously an instrument of trade policy and development of the Community and shall cease to use it as soon is unnecessary. It allows, and its purpose, the EU market access with partial or total exemption of customs duties on exports of manufactured goods and agricultural products.

These data summarize the importance of the Community for these countries: it absorbs one fifth of the exports of developing countries, therefore, 40% of EU imports from these countries. The EU enlargement to ten new States in the market since 2004 adds 75 million potential consumers are open to the Third World.

Theme 5. Spanish development cooperation

1. The history of Spanish cooperation to the approval of the law of July 7, 1998

Spanish cooperation policy is a recent development. After the dictatorship and the recovery of freedom, our country goes into a transformation process such that Spanish society has become a model.

Almost simultaneously the process of building the welfare state, development cooperation becomes one of the main foreign policy. Its integration into the European construction process, will allow our country to establish a new system of interest within the territorial areas on which the Community changed its development aid. The historical links with Latin America will allow the EU, together with interest by Portugal, to consider this area suffers from major imbalances and in need of greater collaboration by the more advanced countries.

Featured authors have pointed out that two important parameters must be taken into account when evaluating our model of cooperation:

• the recent donor country status
• intermediate level of development of our economy,

Both allow a more comprehensive reading and invite two considerations:

• limited experience gained in these years
• limited resources available for cooperation, which have not yet reached the public and requested a commitment made by several groups such as the Platform 0.7, the percentage of GDP devoted to cooperation with the developing countries.

Our country in 1977 was considered recipient country by the World Bank in 1981 still appeared as PVD by the IMF. Today it remains one of the countries with the lowest income per capita of the OECD. According to C. J. Freres and Corral, there are three main reasons for the expansion of Spanish development policy:

• The need to take responsibility for the North / South
• strengthen ties with the regions in which Spain has a strong historical connection, such as the Maghreb and Latin America;
• aid is conceived as an instrument of foreign policy for the internationalization of the economy.

This does not mean that interest in the development is absent, although in many cases appears after other interests.

The first timid achievements were made in the fifties, consisting of mere technical assistance for countries in Latin America, Africa and the Philippines by historic and cultural ties. Administrative inefficiency, lack of objectives and resource constraints define these actions. Slowly, our financial institutions is incorporated as the African Development Fund, the Bank and the Asian Development Bank and African Development.

For other authors, the origins of our cooperation can be traced back to 1945 with the creation of the Directorate General of Cultural Relations, but can hardly be considered as such cultural diffusion and language. It is more common to take as its starting point the establishment of the Directorate of Technical Cooperation, 1970. In short, talking about history in cooperation leads to one conclusion: Spain will have to improvise with the terrible absence as a result of delays caused by forty years of Franco dictatorship

2. the first legal measures

During the first years of democracy there has been no law that has regulated development cooperation. The legal framework has been characterized by the presence of royal decrees related to the creation of specific agencies attached to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as SECIPI or AECI.

They are an important precedent for subsequent action taken. The Motion on International Cooperation for Development between 1984 contains suggestions which included:

• drive the need for common external action
• the creation of an administrative center to centralize planning, coordination and evaluation of the practice of cooperation and
• the need for policy is guided by guidelines laid down in law.

Among the lines that the Senate in 1984 recommended that should form the foundation of Spanish politics, highlighting the liability, the renegotiation of the debt to developing countries and efforts should be made to achieve the rate of 0.7 of GDP set by the UN. One of the elements that have characterized the cooperation are the advantages for trade and the Spanish industry.

In 1987 the Council of Ministers draws up an agreement on the lines of cooperation, and is seen as an ethical duty of solidarity and social justice, income distribution, access to culture and strengthening the economy and institutions, priority both for the effectiveness of sustainable development. Almost as justification has a connotation that how this cooperation is also profitable for the national interests. It is stated that “bilateral cooperation should be consistent with the interests of foreign policy and promote the penetration of industry and technology services Spanish ‘also states that” must be formed mainly of Spanish goods and services or fees personnel of Spanish nationality, “even above its ethical purpose, what is going to overshadow his nature.

All states have established similar commitments, but the volume of Spanish aid related to trade has highlighted against 1.9% in Portugal, the Netherlands 6.5% and 25% in France.

In 1992, Congress of Deputies approved places, with great unanimity, a report on the policy objectives of cooperation, as an attempt to approximate our foreign policy to the guidelines of the DAC countries. The grounds set out in the report share a great similarity to the 1987 agreement, sets out the support and commitment of the state in achieving sustained growth, the contribution to peace and security, but it shows the projection of the economy on the world market. It is emphasized that one of the requirements is the compliance by the recipient country, the rights and freedoms, the rule of law and democracy, for introducing a clause that will ensure compliance. Despite the similarities, certain differences:

• For the first time admitted that the development cooperation policy detracts from important resources of the national product but was held to not weaken the economy. The inclusion of these lines can sustain the fear of the political class to the incomprehension of foreign aid, when the Spanish company had severe internal problems related to unemployment and inequality, but it has become to support the developing countries, to the point currently, more than three-quarters of the population considers insufficient aid to international cooperation programs.
• The most significant difference that manifests the effort to approach the DAC guidelines, appears in the following paragraph: “.. under the criteria adopted by international organizations and agencies, does not include the concept of such a policy and therefore not receive the corresponding preferential treatment, cultural or other relationship with developed countries or those to trade with developed or with which they are not. ” The application of this approach is a conceptual definition of what should be the development cooperation policy.
• An inappropriate use of Fund credits can cover up national interest as the report warns that “should not be included in ODA that responds to business logic.” It can provide a use not only fraudulent and contrary to these criteria, but evil to the extent that through these loans can facilitate the acquisition of military equipment.
• To narrow the gap with the DAC countries and in line with the UN the report admits the breach and recommends allocating 0.35% in 1995 and 0.7% in 2000 (both broken).

Two years after establishing new recommendations in the report to respond to the adaptation to changes in international relations: South America, Middle East and how it affects the process of European integration, the bankrupt communist regimes. An unexpected disorder, whose impact will be felt t in cooperation: the countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States of the former Soviet Union occupied fifth place in 1989 in cooperation aid, suddenly becoming countries applicants in some cases emergency

• Amongst the most relevant contributions are the approval of the transfer with the other DAC countries and strengthening relations with the NGO. Of particular importance are again the recommendations of the use of Fund credits to what is suggested to be modified and adapted to the institutional framework developed in recent years, the law of the CAD and the OECD Consensus, and to correct deficiencies lass management.
• To reinforce the content of external policy of the future development cooperation, the report suggests “the participation of relevant bodies of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the selection process for projects to be FAD and credit, to identify and ensure that take into account the criteria of development aid. “
• The admission arrangements for debt cancellation as ODA,
• concentration of aid from a sectoral perspective in human development and in subsectors such as health, education and integration of disadvantaged and marginalized population,
• from a territorial perspective in the countries of North Africa and Latin America, strengthening decentralized cooperation
• and sending to Parliament a draft law on development cooperation.

3. Law 23/1998, of July 7

A) The social and political reasons the new law

After overcoming some opposition parliamentary avatars and Platform 0.7, the 1998 bill was returned to Congress. The satisfaction of the final result into law characterizes the new stage of cooperation, establishing a milestone in the history of Spanish development cooperation.

The absolute majority of the PP upset certain contents of the project, breaking the consensus among political forces and social actors involved. CiU’s support helped to straighten the positions being rejected most significant amendments in the Senate.

It is the result of efforts since 1994, when the “Camping de la Solidaridad” a social phenomenon. Is mentioned in the Act which states that “the increased funding, shows the solidarity of Spain led largely by the growing awareness of the whole society …». The work of the Platform 0.7 was supported by Isel Rivero, United Nations representative in Spain. In your opinion, is one of the movements more in line with the path that marks the UN in relation to Third World development.

It is significant that a regulation having the force of law as expected and requested has achieved remarkable capacity for integration. Until then cooperation by Spain had only royal decrees related to the creation of organisms rather than the nature of cooperation. Since then we can speak of the existence of a legal framework that regulates the activities related to cooperation, should be understood as “the set of resources and capabilities that Spain offers the developing countries in order to facilitate and promote their economic and social, and contribute to the eradication of poverty in the world in all its manifestations ‘driving’ the defense and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms, the needs of economic and social welfare, sustainability and environmental regeneration (y) … the full consolidation of its institutions and its integration into the international economy. “

The high number of amendments to the initial project to suggest improvements to the bill were the result of consensus and negotiation. Proof of this is the modification of the first article, entitled “object of the law and scope” to replace the wording ‘the main purpose of stimulating economic development and social welfare of its inhabitants, so that these countries to implement a stable economic and social system in a reasonable time for the contents previously collected.

The importance lies in the criticism due to the excessive use of Fund credits coming solidarity overshadowing policy of successive governments. Allegations of social groups echoed in the DAC, whose observations were reflected in an OECD report, according to which “Spain is the country whose aid program presents the more commercial and placed in second place for DAC harshness of the conditions applied. ” The criticisms do not require their removal, because many countries use the model for similar operations. It is the excessive use which puts into question a genuine policy of cooperation.

B) The main features introduced by the new law

Consistent with any policy of cooperation, in line with the criteria established by DAC, set as its main objectives:

• recognition of human beings in their individual and collective dimension
• the defense and promotion of human rights and fundamental freedoms, peace, democracy, and civic participation, including as a new “conditions of equality for women and men in general, non-discrimination.”
• promoting sustainable growth and sustainable development, accompanied by measures that promote the equitable redistribution of wealth to promote the improvement of living conditions and access to health services, educational and cultural well-being of populations.

An important aspect is decentralized cooperation and refers to the role that in recent years have been playing the CCAA, local and NGO. Are listed the government’s commitment to the promotion of activities carried out by NGOs as they must fulfill in order to aid, registration and taxation. It is important to suppress the bill of the term “recognized institution” which would have led to disregard the work of many NGO, having concentrated support in religious organizations, which have monopolized and performed this type of action .

The most important statement is contained in the formula called 111, according to which “so that these resources are classified as ODA, must meet the requirements set by the Development Assistance Committee of the OECD ‘, which has come to mean control more comprehensive legal weight, the volume, destination, and the significance of the bilateral credits refundable for tied aid. The new standard consists of six chapters:

• The Chapter I, “the Spanish international cooperation policy for development ‘, contains the objectives and scope and the establishment of sectoral priorities, among which are highlighted:
• basic social services,
• provision and improvement of infrastructure and private production system
• the development of scientific and technological research,
• environmental protection and cultural identities
• strengthening democracy and protecting human rights and fundamental freedoms.
• The Chapter II on the planning, instruments and modalities of cooperation policy, establishes the characteristics of both the Master Plan and Annual Plans in determining objectives, priorities and resources, in terms of geographical areas and host countries through humanitarian aid, education for development and social awareness and technical cooperation, economic and financial.
• Chapter III on the relevant bodies, including specific areas of action and decision:
• Concerning the House of Representatives to establish the general lines of cooperation policy
• the Government is to define and direct the policy of international cooperation
• the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in charge of ministerial coordination in other areas also undertaking cooperation actions.
• There are established as consultative and coordination bodies:
• Interministerial Commission for International Cooperation
• Interregional Commission for Development Cooperation
• the Council for Development Cooperation, which are represented, along with the administration, social partners, experts and NGO. He became, in the process of processing, in one of the battlefields, having failed to incorporate the demands of the social and Platform O’7 demanding greater representation of civil society and greater powers binding.
• In Chapter IV specifies the necessary material resources for the implementation and realization of cooperation policy, among which the budgets and donations from the funds managed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and credits of various kinds of the Ministry of Economy and Finance.
• The Chapter V sets out the rules in the workplace and professional staff serving the administration in the field
• Chapter VI regulates some of the most sensitive, non-governmental participation in establishing the criteria for the NGO to carry out their work at international level in order to receive subsidies as well as those aspects related to volunteerism to service cooperation and aid workers.

4. The administrative organization of cooperation

The first organic unity of cooperation corresponds to the Directorate General of Cultural Relations, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1945 for the dissemination of culture and language. He focused on Latin America for what was created in 1947 by the Institute of Hispanic Culture, converted in the Ibero-American Cooperation Center in 1977 and in 1979, the Iberoamerican Cooperation Institute, which will also cover economic areas, science and technology.

In the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, was established in 1970, the General Directorate of International Technical Cooperation in order to assist in the design of Spanish foreign policy, as well as participation in international organizations. It is the first real administrative unit of the promotion of development. It was closed in 1988 and created the Spanish International Cooperation Agency (AECI).

Given the delay in the development and adoption of the Cooperation Act of 1998, all organs contained in the new law were already in operation prior to its entry into force. The vast majority of the regulatory framework, composed mainly of royal decrees, referred to its creation and operation to which they devoted the implementation of cooperation.

Organs and their specific functions:

The central bodies

• In 1985, establishing the Ministry of International Cooperation and Iberoamerica (SECIPI) with the function of directing, scheduling, monitoring and evaluating cooperation activities. Coordinates the cooperation policy, manage resources, said the Spanish participation in international organizations and define their position in the Community development policy. In 1996 the Ministry was changed and it was established that corresponds to the SECIPI assist “in the formulation and implementation of the policy of development cooperation and economic relations, cultural and scientific coordinate assigned activities with other bodies‘. Director and Proposes Annual Plans and priorities and is responsible for evaluating programs and projects.
• In 1988, establishing the Spanish International Cooperation Agency (AECI) as an autonomous body under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs through the SECIPI and in order to implement and manage projects and programs. It was created in 1988 from the consolidation of Ibero-American Cooperation Institute and the Instituto Hispano-Arab culture. This includes the direction of the Technical Cooperation Offices, which coordinate and put in place the resources of their respective boundaries.

The smallest units

• The Interministerial Commission for International Cooperation (ICCI) is the technical coordination between departments and has the function of government proposals to raise the Master Plan and the Annual Plan. The NGO Coordinating underlines the great progress of the Act, but it suffers from ambiguities, and suggested that they go beyond their powers. The fear lies in the role of the Ministry of Finance and Tourism for their influences within the framework of cooperation. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs has monopolized all powers in this area, the inexperience, the result of historical backwardness, shows inconsistencies as the Ministry of Labour was a pioneer in the international cooperation and in 1965 was undertaken by Health, Public Works, Agriculture, Transportation , Tourism and Communications. Even today, there is a body that centralizes all Spanish cooperation, distributed among several departments. One example that gives meaning to the CICI is that in 2004, thirteen ministries of programs and resources available to themselves and the Ministry of Finance which channels most of resources. As a novelty, Ministry of Foreign Affairs has changed its name to that of MAE and Cooperation.
• The Inter-Territorial Committee on Cooperation for Development, he is responsible for coordinating, coordination and cooperation of the authorities that manage resources for ODA. Ensures the consistency and complementarity between the different actors and the effectiveness and efficiency of programs and projects of the administrations. Territorial decentralization has led to the presence of smaller government (CCAA and local authorities) play an important effort for ODA budget, called the Decentralized Cooperation, in 2004, the amount paid by operators of Autonomous Cooperation was equivalent 17.6% of gross ODA and Local Spanish 7.24% of that chapter.
• The Council for Development Cooperation is recognized as a triumph of the social partners. The beginning of its operation was postponed until 1995 and found to positions of responsibility would fall into the hands of the government, occupying a Vice Ministry of Commerce. He was criticized for the 0.7 platform that claimed to hold real powers and that most agents would come from civil society and administration. The NGO Coordinating public made comments and proposed amendments as incorporated into a vocal representative of the Platform 0.7. It was established that the 33 components, only six would be NGO, two trade unions and business, a social economy organizations and a human rights associations and other Ministries involved. Theroles and responsibilities of this Council are:
• Report a preliminary draft laws and other relevant provisions governing the administration areas of cooperation.
• Report on the proposed Master Plan and the Annual International Cooperation Plan.
• Knowing the results of monitoring of the Plan document and its evaluation. To convey to the Government and the Committee on International Cooperation for Development of the House of Representatives the proposals it deems appropriate. The committees have equal representation of political parties in the chamber and are specializing in this case, international cooperation.
• Report annually on compliance with the principle of joint inheritance cooperation actions by organizations of the Administration.

May. Volume and quality of official development assistance

One of the most important achievements lies in the volume reached intended for that purpose to speak of a process of fiscal consolidation. Of the $ 237 million in 1981 to 1305 1991. However, the volume of aid expressed as a percentage of GDP reveals another reading, if they also take into account the average input from DAC countries:

• In the initial stages, the budget have been minimal, the increase in subsequent years is what allowed us to bring the average percentage of CAD
• In those ten years never reached the first half, with the main detachment from 1983 to 0.04% versus 0.34%, rising gradually for the first time, even over 1997, the weighted average (0.23 % of Spanish GNP compared to 0.22% of DAC). All historical fact from the point of view of economic size, would never have returned to achieve in later years.
• This growth is lackluster if you can see the continuing decline in contributions from members of the DAC, which has enabled our country to exceed the average. This decline has been impressive, rising from 0.32% in 1981 to 0.22% in 1997.

Despite continuing to be one of the countries with the lowest income per capita in the OECD, has been gradually adjusting its contribution to the weight of its economy. 220,000 million pesetas, or 0.22% of GNP, consecrated in 2000, consolidated the position and is held in the last data, and in 2004 it reached 0.24% of GNP compared to 0.26% DAC members. If in terms of volume, Spain is in ninth place in the list of donors, in terms of GNP, the 0.24% is below the average.

Multilateral Aid

In 1981, Spanish accounted for only 13.5% of total ODA to rise until 2004, in which multilateral aid exceeds 43%. This approach is due to the international commitments assumed in this period, particularly as a community partner. According to the OECD, after the entry into the EEC, our country becomes the contents of your help and in 1986 and 1987 than multilateral aid to bilateral cooperation: 145 and $ 118 million compared to 59 and 114 million of bilateral aid .

In 2000, the distribution of multilateral ODA consists of the following paragraphs. Of 85758.5 million pesetas:

• contributions to the European Union account for 74.20%
• contributions to the International Financial Agencies 13.09%
• contributions to international organizations the 12.71% Non-Financial

In 2004, the Community priority continues to be an important feature:

• Contributions wing European Union: 62.01%
• Contributions to international financial organizations: 32.36%
• Contributions to Organizations Non-Financial: 5.63%

This strong role due to commitments with the EEC and to normalize the Spanish presence in international fora and correct isolation has meant a source of concern to the extent they provide little in terms of buying goods and services and national use of Spanish experts, although reported satisfaction that multilateral aid is considered an expression of the desire to subordinate national interests to the more general purposes of international agencies.

Contributions to the Community budget for development cooperation (PCCD) represent three quarters of our contribution to the EU. The rest is destined for the European Development Fund (EDF). The increased contribution to both the EDF and the PCCD follows the same trend of all EU countries.

The contributions that our country made to international financial organizations are managed by the Ministry of Finance and the amount of this contribution represents 14.3% of Spanish ODA and fourth of the total multilateral aid. Of the amount, the most significant are those to:

• World Bank 20.68%
• Asian Development Bank, 4.33%
• Corporación Andina de Fomento 3.27%
• African Development Bank 3.03%
• Inter-American Development Bank 2.02%
• International Bank for Reconstruction and Development 0.29%

Total 83.61%

As for the contributions made to the International Organizations Non-Financial, which is less concentrated multilateral aid, only 5.6% have participated seven ministries, although the Foreign focuses almost 95% of the total. This amount represents a decrease of 37.5% over the previous year, partly because they are no longer counted as ODA contributions to peace missions, United Nations.

Bilateral Aid

He has been starring FAD loans, the government chooses the recipient countries both as programs and criteria. Take the form of repayable financial assistance, though adjusted to softer financial conditions, linked to the acquisition of Spanish goods and services are managed directly by the Directorate General for Trade Policy, Ministry of Commerce. This use has clouded the Spanish cooperation.

Reimbursable Bilateral Cooperation

Development Assistance Fund (FAD))

Responds to a Royal Decree Law of 1976 and is a pioneer program taking into account two factors:

• first consideration is the legal status of Spanish cooperation.
• a paradox because in 1976 our country was still receiving assistance.

Its importance is not only due to its volume but its nature, it calls into question the policy. They are defined as follows: “… lending and other support by the Spanish government to other foreign governments and institutions, and intergovernmental financial institutions (including the resident companies in developing countries) … are linked to the acquisition by the recipient of Spanish goods and services. Exceptionally, may be considered loans and financial aid is not linked … The fund shall be financed by annual allocations to be reallocated from that year in the State Budget “

More specifically states that “the resources of the Fund are intended primarily to dealers and lending linked, directly or indirectly to the acquisition of Spanish goods and services. Financial terms were set taking into account the nature of the transactions referred to as the characteristics of the countries receiving them ‘(1977).

The immediate reading is that the FAD credits, either in its origin and subsequent development, were created and operated in the interests of developing countries, but in the interest of economy, trade and workplace Spanish and can draw the following conclusions:

• These credits are granted under license bilateral aid in the form of repayable loans, not grants or repayable amounts.
• bilateral nature means that for the Spanish government to choose both the recipient country and its programs. The selection will determine the creditworthiness of the recipient country, so it follows that the neediest are discarded.
• It is granted are concessional financial terms softer than those prevailing in the market and explains the success of exports through the system

On behalf of the partnership become a significant tool for the empowerment and support for trade policy are attached to the General Directorate of Ministry of Commerce, but also plays an important role the Ministry of Economy, although administered by the Interministerial Commission.

The granting of these claims establishes requirements that determine its nature ambiguous, such as:

• foreign policy reasons regarding the opening of new markets
• the creditworthiness of recipient countries in terms of priority areas for trade in our country.

These criteria are common in the commercial policy of any country, however, its nature not only deviates from the principles of CAD, but also puts into question all models of development. China, Algeria and Mexico have become major beneficiaries of these loans because they have allowed to open markets in which Spanish companies continue to operate, so that recipient countries, including also Venezuela, Argentina, Morocco and Egypt, are a set of countries considered by the DAC as the upper middle-income.

The arguments raised by stakeholders in conservation provide justifications that reaffirm its usefulness as a model of intervention in the field of development cooperation. Since you OECD states that ODA can and must meet the following two objectives: “so help less fortunate peoples as to meet the needs of Spanish society, in particular, to create and maintain employment as as possible … there should be no incompatibility between ODA and job creation and outreach of our economic and industrial capacity at the international level … It is essential that the opinion has the impression that brings more benefits for business and Spanish works … ‘. In 1976 when he created the FAD “is meant that companies have an incentive to sell out”, adding that helped the development of export.

“Spain is the country introduced the program fell more commercial and placed second in the DAC for the harshness of the conditions applied .. The Committee expresses its concern about the investment, mainly by increased public funding for export without it being on par with an increase in donations, which, in fact, have declined. Although there are similar claims in other countries, they predominantly favor Spanish exports fail to respond to the criteria set out on a policy of development aid ‘(OECD, 1994). In view of this, our political class became aware of the need for renewal of the criteria for their use and the mid-nineties, Congress raised the government the necessity of a bill establishing more precise regulation of the funds taking into account the agreements and guidelines of the cameras, the OECD consensus and recommendations of the Development Assistance Committee

In the last ten years, the activity of FAD has been adapting to the rules governing multilateral financing. The implementation of the OECD consensus and the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries initiative (HIPC) have increased the eligibility limitations of the sectors and countries eligible via FAD. In 2000, the participation of FAD loans has represented 13% of aid distributed by geographic areas as follows:

• Asia and Oceania: 59%
• Iberoamerica 30.7%
• 14% North Africa
• Sub-Saharan Africa: 12.3%
• Europe (Bosnia Herzegovina, mainly): 7.1%
• Middle East: 5%

And by sector, were made in the following areas:

• Multilateral financial institutions 19.84%
• Health 16.61%
• Electrical Equipment 16.23%
• Capital Goods 13.59
• Transportation 7.94%
• Education 7%

In 2004 exceeded the forecast of PACI (Annual International Cooperation Plan) but suggest a decrease compared to 2003 by the increasing use of FAD. Be seen in areas that were intended, keeping the priorities of 2000 but with an important nuance: Asia and Oceania are for the 33.26% and Latin America and Africa received 26.32% and 27.2%, respectively.

Microcredit Fund (FCM)

It is also an instrument for Bilateral Cooperation established by the 1998 Act in order to determine budget allocations aimed at providing micro-credit and revolving credit for the improvement of living conditions of vulnerable groups and implementation of basic social development projects .

Its purpose in serving the self-sustained development, involving their own local capacity, facilitating access to micro financial sector and build capacity of countries to solve their financial problems and achieve a higher level of autonomy. It consists in granting credit lines and with a grant element of over 25% to financial institutions located in the host country.

In 2000 was contracted three for Central America for the problems caused by Hurricane Mitch and Colombia. In 2004 turnover of 38 million euros, an increase of 222% over the previous year, being the year when more agreements have been concluded since the inception of the fund and is focused on Laitin America and Europe.

Bilateral Cooperation Non-Refundable

This form of bilateral cooperation is implemented by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Autonomous Communities and Local Government and the instruments are:

• External Debt Operations, which, in turn, distinguishes between two types.
• remission of 50%, their total elimination postponed to a phased period that can reach a couple of decades, with a preferential interest rate, such as debt forgiveness of Egypt as a result of U.S. pressure for participation in the Gulf War .
• removes the so-called partial cancellation does not imply a total but a refinancing on more favorable terms to guarantee the solvency, as the cases of Guinea and Poland. The events caused by Hurricane Mitch, leading to the NGO Coordinator to request the cancellation of the debt of the countries concerned, considering that the aid would be insufficient.

These rollovers are performed following the guidelines of the Paris Club and other international bodies like the World Bank and are not considered by all specialists as instruments of cooperation. More appropriate are the diversions of funds for grant programs. Intermón ruled in favor of purchasing the Ministry of Finance debt that Mozambique has with Spain to write off provided that the Mozambican government by investing the amount in education, becoming the first NGO would buy a debt. Operations amounted to EUR 161 164 144 in 2004 and the country was Nicaragua benefited my long-distance followed by Morocco Equatorial Guinea and Ghana.

• Food Aid. Spain joined the International Convention in 1980 and 1981 is associated with the International Emergency Food Reserve FAO. The Act does not devote a specific section of the instrument and is integrated in Help, accompanied by emergency, distorting its content and that food shortages and supply guarantee form has not always of a pandemic or disaster. Our country spent in 2000, 811.7 million pesetas to this instrument, whose purpose is to help eliminate hunger in the world and fight against food insecurity and malnutrition. According to the OECD, is a modest contribution. Fluctuations in volume are associated with its yearly basis, while maintaining a minimum.
• Humanitarian and Emergency is more versatile and includes not only food supplies but also various activities such as creating the refugee camps, sending medicines and clothes, etc..; Linked to victims of disasters or armed conflicts. During 2000, 6.834 million were spent, which represents a 14.46% of ODA Non-Refundable. In 2004 amounted to 54,226,338 euros for the reconstruction of countries and territories in post-conflict situation and the Sahrawi people, the Palestinian Territories, the earthquake in Morocco, the crisis in Sudan and the tsunami in Southeast Asia.
• Technical Cooperation Programmes and Projects. It is understood as a model of cooperation that seeks to increase productive capacity through increased professional staff, incorporation of technology and research. It can take several forms, including:
• the granting of scholarships to nationals of that country to study in our country, managed by the AECI
• cultural cooperation, scientific and technological exchanges designed to
• funding programs or projects, also managed by the AECI
• the purchase of Spanish equipment are incorporated into the productive structures of the host country.

One example is the Latin American Training Program, involving various ministries providing technical courses for high-level Latin American governments. Oldest are the program of literacy and adult basic education and heritage preservation.

• Programs and projects of the NGOs are devoted mostly to the creation or maintenance of social infrastructure and OS services, covering nearly three-quarters of the projects and for Iberoamerica, sub-Saharan African, North Africa and Middle East. In 2004, amounted to 346,860,276 euros, 27.6% of gross bilateral ODA, which places Spain among the countries that channel a greater proportion of its aid through these agents. L as subsidies come mostly from the CCAA (78% of total), so that the decentralized role is considerable. In 2004, more NGO funded were: Red Cross, Intermón, Médecins du Monde and Action Aid.
• Development education and social awareness. It is designed to:
• values education, solidarity, multiculturalism, tolerance, peace, environment, among others,
• projects aimed at increasing education and skills of different actors in cooperation through courses and thematic seminars and awareness campaigns.

It occupies a symbolic place in spending, although they have ability to attract the public face. In 2004, he dedicated the 1.61% of total bilateral ODA

6. The decentralized formal cooperation (COD)

The Autonomous Communities face a problem of jurisdiction with the central government in this area, although so far allowed the implementation of programs that co-finance or carry out directly.

International relations are the preserve of the state and is responsible for ensuring compliance with treaties and resolutions adopted by the agencies. However, the state may transfer or delegate to the Autonomous Communities through Organic Law.

The Law of 98 revealed that, at times, certain activities are faced by the area of competence. Both the PNV and CiU recalled that the central government lacks the competence to coordinate the cooperation that takes place throughout the state, which can only coordinate the actions of its s organs. They conclude that the principle governing state cooperation is cooperation rather than coordination. CiU said that a high percentage of ODA is made from the municipalities and regional governments, so that should prevail the principle of decentralized cooperation. The pressure from the nationalists led to the drafting of the paper as stating that “the action of these institutions for development cooperation is based on the principles of budgetary autonomy … must respect the general and guidelines established by the Congress of Deputies. “

The role of the Autonomous Communities and local authorities play in the cooperation is latent in the investigation of 1997realizada by FEMP. According to the report, the qualitative and quantitative leap in the cooperation of these entities has been remarkable, the 785 million pesetas in 1992 amounted to 7.765 million in 1997. The Provincial experienced similar growth, from 486 million to 2.774 million in 1997.

The contributions of the regional governments, in 2000, amounted to 19575.8 million pesetas in 2004 exceeded 221 million euros, 17.6% of gross bilateral ODA.

The data in the table reflect payments made by each community but they need to cross them with income per capita to see the true fiscal effort. Thus, the major donors group differs from the above list, relocated to the top, Navarre, Balearic Islands, Basque Country, Castilla-La Mancha and La Rioja

Support focuses, more than half in A. America, followed Saharan Africa and the Mediterranean. The social infrastructure and services have been its main field of action and within, health and education. The sectoral distribution shows that the CCAA meet 20/20 Commitment implies greater investment in basic social services, rather than the other actors of Spanish cooperation. NGDOs are channeled through three quarters in

Given the huge number of corporations that fund local projects, we can not accurately account for disbursements.

7. Geographical and sectoral distribution of aid to cooperation.

• 
  The geographical distribution is related to historical, cultural and linguistic backgrounds that unite us with Latin America, becoming the first recipient, four times more than the average of CAD. Geographical proximity and migration flows to the North African stars in the second place together with Angola, Mozambique, Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea with which unites us also close political ties.

• CAD sectoral distribution reflects a shift towards infrastructure and social services account for half of the contributions. The remainder went to infrastructure and services and multisectoral actions. The instruments of cooperation refundable credits and micro-FAD is moving towards economic services, infrastructure, banking and financial services and transport and storage, in terms of donations, have focused on education, government and civil society and health.

Item 6. Standardization of development cooperation in Spain

The policy of cooperation provided by developed countries is the benchmark for its level of democracy, so in Spain’s recent institutionalization of Foreign Aid. Having overcome the years of transition, there are the first decisions become reality external action in cooperation:

• To ensure exports was established in 1976, the Development Assistance Fund
• The Comprehensive Plan of Cooperation with Central America is of 1984
• Creation in 1985 of the Ministry of International Cooperation for Latin America (SECEPI), which brings together institutions and autonomous bodies scattered, with features for cooperation in scientific, technical, economic and cultural.
• Creation of the Interministerial Committee for International Cooperation (1986) to coordinate the activities of government through various ministries.
• Creation 198) of the Spanish International Cooperation Agency (AECI) for the field of management coordination and cooperation policy and it sets up the Office of Planning and Evaluation.
• Law on International Cooperation for Development (LCID) (1998). Establishes a legal normal situation for political action at this level budgetary and institutional coordination of individual actions and setting priorities, goals and schedules.
• By mandate of the law is developed extensive legislation.The Interregional Cooperation Commission (2000, amended in 2004) is coordinating aid, programs and actions of all administrations.
• The Statute of the Spanish International Cooperation Agency (2000) fits the organization of the agency’s new priorities.
• The Development Cooperation Council, an advisory body and the participation of all social actors, whose report on the Master Plan is required, change its composition, functions and responsibilities (2004)
• The Statute of Cooperating (2006) marks the rights, duties, training, accreditation, incompatibilities and social coverage of cooperators.

1. Law on International Cooperation for Development

Spain no longer aid recipient country in 1981 and is incorporated into the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) in 1991, which highlights the success of its development as is happening with the Regional Policy of Spain in relation to the EU, after two decades to receive structural funds and cohesion, we enter as a net contributor. Normalized their participation in international organizations, although a small contribution. The target in 2008 to 0.5% of GDP in Official Development Assistance define the actual role, even far from 0.7 to 1% target set by the UN.

Law regulations and actions unify dispersed, organizations and institutions created ad hoc, establishing a hierarchy necessary to institutionalize “a fundamental aspect of the external action of democratic states.” “They are integrated within the international development cooperation are all the resources and capabilities that Spain places available to developing countries, in order to facilitate and promote economic and social progress, and for the eradication of poverty in the world in all its manifestations. ” It manifests itself in attitudes approving with international standards:

• Methodologically autonomous action is passed, isolated and determined by political commitments, a coordinated and planned actions on the basis of humanitarian and development needs.
• Planning produces an increase in the scientific process, supported statistically evaluated in its implementation and effects, through the Office of Planning and Evaluation, sectorally optimized by the Interministerial Commission, coordinated by the Commission Inter-territorial and socially owned by the Cooperation Council .
• The effects are expressed, belatedly, in the Master Plan 2005-2008, which could be aligned with the more advanced countries.
• The estimate, humanitarian aid and development is so important and effective as in armed conflict. Often initiate proceedings when there are effects and corpses.
• The economic survey, infrastructure … (exploration of the future) development of the poorest countries is important and poorly developed. It is vital for them if they want to play the second representation of strategies, technologies and constraints that developed countries have passed. Everything just inefficient in developing countries.

The main references of the law are the principles, priorities, human and material resources executives and participatory organizations which demand a performance, efficient, measurable, verifiable, transparent and minimally bureaucratic:

• Becomes the instrument of legal regulation of cooperation in Spain
• Includes the promotion of human rights, freedoms and economic and social welfare as a basic objective.
• It applies to transfers of public resources and human materials provided are classified as ODA, by international standards of the OECD DAC.
• It expresses the solidarity of the Spanish people with the principles:
  • Human rights, fundamental freedoms, peace, democracy, equality, non discrimination …
  • Sustainable human development and equitable global
  • Sustainable economic growth with equitable distribution
• The objectives that emanate from them and materialize are:
  • Unifying state action outside
  • Develop action strategies to promote sustainable development and poverty reduction
  • Encourage the development of the disadvantaged, from their own capacities, improving their living standards and promoting democratic stability.
  • To contribute to the balance in international relations, trade, peace and security.
  • Prevent and deal with emergency situations
  • To improve political, economic and cultural ties with these countries
• The policy priorities for cooperation articulated on two axes:
  • Geographic: In the bilateral context with each host country, establishing priority areas: Latin America, North Africa and Middle East. In the multilateral framework is shared EU policy and meets the demands of the UN.
  • Sectoral: The fight against poverty mark priorities:
  • Basic social services (health, sanitation, education, food, training)
  • Infrastructure and small enterprises and cooperatives.
  • Human rights, women, vulnerable groups (children, refugees, IDPs, returnees, indigenous peoples, minorities).
  • Democracy, environment, biodiversity
  • Culture and identity
  • Scientific and technological research.
• The Master Plan is the basic element of planning policy cooperation. Four year and will be developed by an Annual Plan each year.
  • Check the lines, guidelines, objectives, priorities and available resources.
  • Use the tools:
  • Technical cooperation: training of human resources through training and advisory projects in the host country.
  • Provides financial and economic cooperation: contributions through official funds for investment, infrastructure, agriculture, health, education, transportation.
  • Humanitarian Aid: urgent disaster natural or rehabilitation, reconstruction, and prevention and conflict resolution.
  • Education for development: activities in Spain to meet the problems of developing countries and promote solidarity.
• The bodies involved in formulating and implementing poli-cies of cooperation are three levels:
  • Governing Bodies:
  • Congress proves the Master Plan and Annual Plans
  • The government approves the plan and the Annual Plans Director Ylos presented to Congress.
  • The Ministry of Foreign Affairs conducts the policy of serving and coordinates with other ministries.
  • The Secretary of State for International Cooperation and for Latin America (SECIPI) under the MAE, coordinates and manages the partnership. Participates in the EU and international organizations. Sets the programming, management, monitoring and control. Formula initial proposal of the Master Plan and Annual and evaluates the achievement of its objectives.
  • Advisory Bodies:
  • Development Cooperation Council: composed of social partners, experts, NGO reports on the Master Plan
  • Interterritorial Commission Development Cooperation: made by government (central, regional, local) that are computable as ODA expenditure. Search complementarity, effectiveness and coherence of aid and information on the Master Plan.
  • Interministerial Commission for International Cooperation: technically coordinates the actions of the central government cooperation.
  • Executive Bodies
  • Spanish International Cooperation Agency (AECI) is the management authority of the Spanish cooperation.
  • Technical Cooperation Offices: embassy is organically and functionally to the AEC, coordinate resources in recipient countries.

The material resources are channeled through international and bilateral aid by means of contributions and budgetary allocations.

• The State encourages cooperation through NGOs, businesses, unions. NGOs must register with the AECI for consideration as official aid and tax benefits they are entitled.
• The voluntary cooperation, will have resources for their basic needs in the country of performance, health and accident insurance and period of training and conditions established by Law of Volunteering.
• Donors are entrusted with the implementation of a project or program and must meet the requirements of the statute of Cooperator. They were selected by level of education and experience in management cooperation. Their work is strategic to achieving the goals and rights are recognized according to whether their employment is:
  • employment contract: in some forms of labor law requires a “supplementary agreement destination” in stating the characteristics of the project: country, place of work, schedules, holidays …
  • civil service recruitment: they could enjoy leave and return to his post, once their stay in the host country.

2. The Millennium Summit (New York 6,7,8, IX-2000)

The United Nations General Assembly, establishes a series of strategic agreements that change the paradigm of the Washington Consensus. It is a transformation of the goals of globalization.

Faced with a mechanistic view of economics as an autonomous sector, United Nations present a model of shared responsibility. The great problems of humanity are the result of the interaction of the entire planet and the values upheld, the rights should be part of the solution. Goals will be scored on an urgent basis to offset the causes of bloody dramas and inequalities, starting with the war and extreme poverty.

The Millennium Declaration owes its notoriety to the Millennium Development Goals. We present eight goals contain 18 targets with precise dates to be completed and the interim down 48 indicators to certify progress towards objectives and targets, which are based on the third section of the Declaration (“development and poverty eradication ‘). In the context of the entire Declaration is where cooperation comes into its own:

• Values and Principles: those reflected in the UN Charter as a precondition for a more just, more peaceful and more prosperous.
• Accountability of leaders to uphold the principles of human dignity, equality and equity at the global level.
• Just and lasting peace, resolving conflicts peacefully.
• Human rights and fundamental freedoms without distinction of cre do, race, sex, economic status.
• International cooperation to economic, social. cultural, and humanitarian.
• That globalization (globalization) becomes a positive force for everyone in the world, thus inclusive and equitable, because it incorporates the participation of developing countries.
• As fundamental values for the XXI century:
  • Freedom: men and women are entitled to live their lives free from hunger and violence, with democratic governments elected by all.
  • Equality, so that everyone can benefit from development.
  • Solidarity: the countries that benefit from trade and globalization should contribute to improving the poor.
  • Tolerance: Not repressed, but respect and care for diversity, with a culture of peace and dialogue among civilizations.
  • Respect for nature: the responsible management of living beings and natural resources.
  • Disclaimer: collaboration to solve more problems that threaten humanity and communities.
• Peace, Security and Disarmament: are recorded in the decade 1990-2000 five million dead. The proposals of the Declaration are clear:
  • Rule of law in international affairs and national, with respect to the judgments of the International Court of Justice and United Nations resolutions.
  • Increased!-Effective and resources for prevention, conflict resolution, reconstruction, return of exiles and displaced persons.
  • Arms control, disarmament, strict observance of human rights, recommendation, for those countries that have not already done so to ratify the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.
  • Concrete measures against international terrorism. Coordinated fight against drugs
  • Fight against international crime and police at the legal level.
  • Detailed analysis of the unintended impact of economic sanctions on countries, in order not affecting the populations and the most vulnerable.
  • Reduction and elimination of weapons of mass destruction and nuclear weapons.

Both the values and the goals of peace, security and disarmament have such an effect that can not be seen as something alien to the Millennium Development Goals. The connection of the aspects of world problems to the values recognized in the Declaration marks a new paradigm of cooperation, vital to optimize investments, sustainability of projects and the removal of fraud, reflected also in the rest of the Declaration :

• Protecting the common environment. It is important that the United Nations General Assembly for a new ethics rule to curb global destruction. All proposals are consistent with the claims that are carried out in developing countries:
  • Kyoto Protocol Enforcement
  • Collective efforts of the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests.
  • Implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity and to Combat Desertification, particularly in Africa.
  • Gravity of the unsustainable exploitation of water resources management and strategies for equitable access to them by their importance as a vital ingredient for the supply and possible cause of conflict.
  • Reducing the impact of natural disasters provoked.
• Human rights, democracy and good governance. The defense of participatory democracy, with the proclamation of human rights, without limitations due to culture, religion or ethnicity, applicable to all countries. It is not incompatible poverty and democratic system.

Not all of the UDHR treaty is signed by all countries and there is a gap between the firm and its implementation. The actual practice of some countries reduced to mere semantic content.

In addition to the signing of the Declaration is presented as objective the protection of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, because “are the essence of all the millennium development goals.”

• Minority rights and collaboration to increase the capacity to implement democracy through free elections, independent judiciary and transparency in governance.
  • Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, starting with the violent forms and traditions incompatible with human rights
  • Migration, facilitated by poverty, inequality, the political persecution and transportation facilities, has created a field in which fundamental rights are frequently violated with impunity. Provide migrants with sufficient social protection and to guard against outbreaks of xenophobia and racism is a vital objective.
  • Freedom of media is key to the rights and transparency in government, have a reference for information, monitoring and review. The persecutions, murder … journalists are an example of the difficulties in maintaining freedom of expression.
• Protection of vulnerable people who are exposed to poverty, illness or death. The fact that in recent decades, 75% of deaths in armed conflicts were civilians, more than two million children and more than six million permanently disabled, certifies gravity.

Rootlessness and misery accompanies the movements of those who take refuge from the wars, especially children, women, elderly … unprotected rights. Therefore international cooperation for the maintenance and return to their homes is presented as an ethical duty priority.

The implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the prohibition of its incorporation in armed conflicts, the fight against prostitution and child pornography, the sale of children and illegal adoption, requires priority actions and not just the accession of countries to the Convention.

• Addressing the special needs of Africa. The absence of real democratic structures, armed conflicts and destruction of commercial databases has produced the most intense phenomena of poverty and stagnation.
  • Support for new democracies to consolidate.
  • Establishment of mechanisms for conflict prevention with the corresponding budget guarantee.
  • Emergency measures to fight hunger and poverty and encourage sustainable development to avoid mass migration, compulsory and suicidal.
  • Keep the fight against infectious diseases, especially HIV
• Strengthening United Nations. Paragraph 29 of the Declaration sets out the objectives: “We will spare no efforts to make the UN a more effective instrument for pursuing all the priorities listed below: the struggle for development of all peoples the world, the fight against poverty, ignorance and disease fighting injustice the fight against violence, terror and crime, fight against the degradation and destruction of our planet‘. It is remarkable to offer the private sector, NGOs and civil society in general, more opportunities to contribute to the achievement of goals.

The nature of the UN, the difficulties of consensus, the voting system, the powers of the Security Council members, the absence of mechanisms that force to implement its resolutions, have undermined its image, especially at the slow pace of proceedings. The more connected with social movements and non-public areas can improve their policies and regain some good image.

3. Millennium Development Goals

Section III in the Declaration has served as basis for the Millennium Development Goals. Eradicating poverty is the more worthy goal of consensus, which operates as an ethical imperative. The geography of poverty and hunger is asymmetric and shows the difficulty of many societies to join the global system and the inability to integrate commercial interests. There are food distribution capacity and demand but not the conditions of purchasing power the market demands: Three billion in 2000 lived on less than two dollars a day.

• 1200 million lived on less than a dollar a day
  • 826 million were not receiving adequate food
  • 800 million were virtually no income
  • thousand three hundred and six million children die of hunger.
  • 51% of sub-Saharan Africa live on less than a dollar a day

The situation had improved, but the pace is not matched by commitments. The analysis yields catastrophic results. Therefore, the declaration becomes a priority to make this goal: “We will spare no effort to free our fellow men from the dehumanizing conditions of extreme poverty, which are currently undergoing more than one billion human beings. We steamed into a reality for all of them the right to development and put the entire human race from want “

The strategy is an innovation that selects eight goals, eighteen targets and 48 indicators that will be shaping the pace of completion of objectives.

Millennium Development Goal

The objective of any process of cooperation is to ensure that affected countries reach a sufficient level of autonomy for managing their own development. To do this they must work synergistically:

• An Official Development Assistance (ODA) increasing appropriate directed at resolving humanitarian problems and promote the production process.
• Market access for exports, especially in highly indebted countries (HIPC) and the Least Developed Countries (LDCs).

Subsidies to farmers in the U.S. and the EU create an exception to the positive competition for them and bad for the economies of developing countries, following one of the contradictions of foreign aid policies of rich countries. The electoral strength of the farmers, just 6%, remains heavily subsidized products stopping the entry of other more competitive.

• structural adjustment and control of expenditure: creating an industrial, infrastructural and educational aid it receives, productive investment and avoid speculation on their currencies and companies.
• The European Union has created areas of process exception to the positive competition for regions and the states of low incomes, through the Cohesion Fund and Structural Funds, has enabled key pieces of transport infrastructure, energy, training,,,, receive significant public subsidies in the less developed regions. What might beBusiness dumping has become solidarity. Many investments have had a 75% or 80% of total non-repayable grants with contributions from richer countries.

This model has been vital to the recovery of countries like Spain, Greece, Portugal and Ireland and is being, for the enlargement countries or are in the process of accession. Many of the concepts and philosophy of European regional policy can be references paradigmatic of the new partnership.

• good management of public affairs in each country is essential to achieving the objectives. In the dual field and the host country to facilitate aid, whose agendas must incorporate the objectives, measures and indicators for ongoing assessment.
• Financial, monetary and trade open and equitable, considering the asymmetry of the developing countries and establish flexible and appropriate regulations. Good governance does not mean uniformity of treatment, but compensatory sectoral flexibility and appropriateness of the structural difficulties.
• Removing restrictions on imports of products of the developing countries is becoming one of the priority claims. It is clear that to be competitive with those of developed countries and is achieved by the low cost of labor, the weakness of taxation and the absence of welfare state that gravitate to the profitability of work. But, when you give that level, are quotas and the U.S. and EU subsidies to their farmers, for products for domestic consumption.
• The debt reduction. The concept implies a sustainable debt sustainability analysis, based on the capabilities and conditions of each country. This attitude was missing when the 70 and 80 developing countries without democratic control and assumed debt. The legitimacy of the creditors is questionable.

While structural measures will take effect, it must address the major weaknesses of the system and its consequences clearly visible:

GOAL 1: eradicate extreme poverty and hunger (2015)

“Halve, between 1990 and 2015 the percentage of world’s people whose income is less than one dollar a day” were totally unprotected hungry.

The drama hides the importance of access to potable water. According to data from 1990, one billion people were without a guaranteed supply of water and 2400 million did not have basic sanitation. The indicators can not be more striking:

• percentage of people with less than a dollar a day
• Poverty gap
• percentage of consumption in the fifth of the poorest,
• weight children under five years
• percentage of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption

GOAL 2: cycle of primary education for all children (2015).

One of the essential requirements of the incorporation of the developing countries into the world market is the level of scientific literacy of their populations, which begins to eradicate illiteracy. Girls deserve special attention because of their lower school enrollment rate. The quality of education requires increased budgets and programs for the provision of facilities to attract poor children such as “school feeding” and “take-home rations.”

OBJECTIVE 3: promote gender equality and empower women.

Two thirds of those living on less than a dollar are women, which is complemented by legislative and social discrimination (access to employment, wages, political representatives, …) that is maintained in most countries.

GOAL 4: Reduce child mortality

• Every year eleven million children die in developing countries within five years and six million three hundred thousand of them die of hunger.
• The goal is to reduce (1990-2015) two-thirds of these deaths.
• It progresses through vaccination campaigns of polio, diphtheria, pertussis, measles, tetanus and tuberculosis, but they should be maintained until the end.

GOAL 5: Improve maternal health

The goal is to reduce by three quarters the maternal mortality by 2015

• 99% of the 551 000 women who died in 1995 from causes related to pregnancy were from developing countries.
• Only 51% of births in the world received specialized care.
• HIV / AIDS and the resurgence of malaria, tuberculosis, lack of potable water, malnutrition, lack of education and access to basic health services, slowed down the effects of campaigns to achieve the objectives.

GOAL 6: Combat HIV / AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis and other pandemics

The goal is to contain 2015 AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis. The numbers are compelling:

• Three million people died of AIDS in 2003.
  • Thirty-six million people are affected by AIDS.
  • Each year eight million people contract tuberculosis.
  • Two million people die each year from tuberculosis.
  • One million people die each year from malaria.
• Access to medicines is vital. The pharmaceutical industry has helped to reduce prices, but the situation is still not adequate. The Intellectual Property Law endangers the ownership of patents, the widespread use of certain drugs at affordable prices.

GOAL 7: Ensure environmental sustainability

In all proceedings, but more so in the public administration should be incorporated sustainable development principles and environmental impact assessments. Authorities themselves violate their own regulations on infrastructure projects, communications, energy and management. The effort demanded to the developing countries should be accounted for and compensated by others.

GOAL 8: Develop a global partnership for development

The responsibility of the global development requires coordinated action involving the control of globalization, updating of endogenous capacities of recipient countries and governance.

• A trading system that takes into consideration developing countries:
  • No tariffs or quotas for exports of the poorest.
  • Oriented toward the cancellation of external debt, from the additionality and sustainability.
  • Based on the promotion of endogenous resources.
  • Giving priority to job creation, especially for young people.
  • With an investment of speculative foreign capital.
  • Ensuring access to essential medicines cheaper.
  • By enabling access to new information technologies and communications, encourage transfer of technology on mutually agreed to adopt policies and programs that help developing countries to place technology at the service of development, through technical cooperation and the creation of scientific and technological capabilities.
  • Transparency in management and participation.
• Official Development Assistance to reach 0.7% of GDP, as agreed by the International Conference on Financing for Development.
• A descriptor system permitting qualitative analytical and see the effects of aid and its evolution time correcting its orientation and to distinguish humanitarian assistance and development aid.

4. The master plan and annual plans

The proposals for the Cooperation Act, the legislative process and administrative implementation was challenging and ambitious, in large measure, been fulfilled. A vital piece was to have a master plan for the management, coordination, prioritization and the participatory nature of the cooperation policy to lie on the quality and efficiency organizations require more dedication and prestige in e! internationally.

The stage, which inaugurates the new Master Plan is its commitment to direct methodology. Defensiveness is back to assess the cooperation so it makes for results. The budget increase, the more institutional and international growth of the volunteers, aid workers and officials are good indexes, together with the positive assessment of the impact on the problems.

The waste is easy, always limited quantities and, therefore, the conditions for optimization are crucial to the success or failure:

• Detailed study of the problem in the country in which we act, the specific area in which it operates, the conditions and cul tural socioeconórnicas to groups that are to be targeted for action.
• Incorporation of the views, contributions and experiences of representatives from the scope of intervention, from the design and the implementation and evaluation periods.
• Connection coordinated with all other policies operating in the area of project implementation. Alone can not solve the problem which requires the synergistic collaboration with other policies and socio-economic variables of the private sphere.
• Quality and consistency of programs and projects with an accurate assessment means-ends to avoid frustration with unrealistic expectations or premature termination.
• Requirement in the selection of projects, rewarding those who address pressing problems and take into consideration how to comply with horizontal priorities and priority areas.

In addition to the Act, the Strategic Plan concerning located in the Millennium Declaration and on the international agenda and then emerge the axes of the great pandemics:

• Fighting poverty in its most radical.
• Search for peace to freeze up and avoid conflicts future wars.
• Supremacy of human dignity as the source of all rights.
• Equal rights for all without exception or condition
• Balance to limit socially unacceptable inequality and provide development opportunities to all companies.

In line with this perspective are established seven strategic objectives of Spanish cooperation:

• Increased institutional and social capabilities.
  • Increased human capacity.
  • Increased economic capabilities.
  • Capacity-building for improved environmental sustainability
  • Increasing liberty and cultural capacities.
  • Increased empowerment of women.
  • Increased capacity for conflict prevention and peace building.

It refers to values and the search for autonomy to defend and extend, in a framework. You can not conceive of cooperative action as a mere transfer of resources, but also transfer of technology, methodology and organizational capacity to maintain over time. Without own a collective capacity does not come out of poverty or economic or cultural prostration.

5. Horizontal priorities

They are guidelines for select programs, resources and activities as a condition sine qua non for approval:

• The fight against poverty. It is complex and goes beyond the concept of humanitarian aid and food security. It tries to refine the concept of poverty based on a certain level of income below half the average for the society in which one lives but are difficult to apply to developing countries, especially the poorest, where state is practically non-basic social services are not guaranteed. It is not the same thing with a poor health care, free education, food aid and another of them unassisted.

In overcoming the traditional concept of poverty, establishing a new multidimensional includes the lack of ability to independently achieve the necessary means to live with dignity. The actions must be directed to the set of variables that allow a person or group to be able to leave a situation of permanent dependency. In this training, where young people can be the most dynamic sector through training and education, are needed political compromises that are committed to an economic project investor together all sectoral policies.

So the fight against poverty becomes development policy, incorporating all the requirements: investment, strengthening the productive base, government support, institutional commitment, and so on. The distinction between humanitarian and development aid is clear, but in the field of poverty are shared.

• Defense of human rights. The superabundant collection of rights guaranteed by international institutions and updated by Summits, Conventions, etc., Endorse the legitimacy of the objectives: to provide assurance to the person as a subject of rights. Cooperation is inseparable from the defense of these rights and democratic institutionalization. Ignoring the difficulties of democratic processes would be a setback.

Set the values and rights, the projects can become the best teaching and experience of democratic participation and behavior, through joint planning, evaluation, criticism, the distribution of responsibilities, etc..

• Gender equality. The principles are reflected in the Convention on All Forms of Discrimination against Women of 1979 and the Beijing Platform for Action 1995. The difficulties are due to implement specific policies that exemplify attitudes to be assumed by the population. In the area of cooperation is often confronted with traditions that mask positions dominated by men. Know how to distinguish the cultural diversity of traditions that undermine the rights of equality is vital, but wish to fall into insurmountable contradictions.
• Environmental sustainability. The official position of Spanish (Spanish Cooperation Strategy in the Environment. 2002) is in line with United Nations programs for Development and the Summit of Rio de Janeiro, which call about the risks of the production process and increasing consumption .

For the developing countries, many of the recommendations contradictory connotations acquired by the fact that industrial development countries keep polluting and high consumption patterns and overexploitation of resources, demand, without any security, growing systems that consider the climate change, desertification, protection and conservation of parks and forests with the protection required by international standards.

It is necessary to ensure that investments do not result in cooperative environmental degradation, gauging the impact of construction projects, audited the results and making assessments to ensure the utmost rigor.

• Respect for cultural diversity. The competitive nature and scientific culture of the developed countries, just rolling it identifies the cultures of the developing countries. But hold values, attitudes, traditions of great value to the culture of extreme growth and competitiveness have been forgotten. Training of volunteers must have a sociological basis of the culture of the area in which projects are implemented. Capable of damaging any program can be approved, as recommended by the UNDP.

No policy, program or project that violates or does not incorporate these five priorities, can thrive. Problems arise in practice, but should be embodied the will and the signature of the recipient country and the country or international organization taxpayer.

6. Sectoral priorities

In order to optimize performance and resources, it is logical to select the fields of action depending on the severity of the problems and defined as priority sectors in the Master Plan:

• Promoting democracy and good governance. is significant is the earlier. Gone neutrality cooperation has benefited both autocratic and opaque governments exploiting the possibilities of aid to maintain the status quo and benefit a personal, family or clan. Cooperation aims to become an example of respect for democratic norms;
  • collaborate to establish and consolidate processes of participatory democracy,
  • strengthen social dialogue between management and economic, social and administration;
  • advance the process of legal guarantees from independent institutions, accessible, without discrimination, based on representative legitimacy and decentralized.

The democratic gobernaza is a priority area for investment and a catalyst for positive effects on other policies. In order to accomplish their work in the most appropriate, institutions are encouraged to be pioneers in the use of ICT to achieve more efficiency and better contact with citizens.

• Basic social needs. Clearly the impact of the political position: be clear about the priority of this objective and provide funds consistent. The Master Plan provides for 20% of total ODA to this aspect.

The benchmark strategy is given by the Programme of Action of the Social Development Summit in Copenhagen and the World Leaders for Action against Hunger and Poverty. The problem of hunger produces a binomial hunger-emergency food aid, but today the focus is more critical and ambitious. Two levels that pose a higher level:

• food security, ensuring access to goods that prevents the occurrence of acute and uncontrolled pandemics;
  • food sovereignty, which involves the stimulation of indigenous production, especially of small farms, usually family and / or local cooperative. It is the key to solving the problem, but requires the full incorporation of the strategy for development projects. Leaving the mechanism involves need-help and enter the solution through synergistic cooperation and comprehensive policies favored by local governments for state programs of the host country and international standards. In this case are:
  • programs to help small farms
  • agrarian reforms in access to land ownership
  • training to the development of small businesses,
  • microcredit to enable industrial processes
  • channeling of aid and investment in infrastructure

Beside the food, deprivation of knowledge is a cause of the deepest of marginalization.The vast majority of the requirements to get out of poverty require training. The fact that in some societies discriminate against women and girls, marginalized in the education system, aggravating the social conditions and hinders the achievement of the objectives of equality and gender. Therefore, the investment will focus on basic education with incentives for attendance (dining room, carrying rations) to enable completion of elementary education, with vocational training opportunities and continue their studies.

In a developing society is entitled to a health with many gaps. The health condition affects the vulnerability. A public health system is not discriminatory, giving priority to primary care is one way that seeks to promote cooperation. The infant and maternal mortality, diseases with high morbidity that require immunization, prevention, information and access to cheap medicines, are priorities in the Spanish cooperation.

Having covered the needs of shelter and residence is one of the areas outlined in the projects of international organizations. Housing is not only the roof of the families but the environment in which it is located. The lack of urban vulnerability to flooding and associated hazards of inappropriate location. The basic facilities of water, sanitation, energy, access and communication channels are requirements of decent housing that lack of thousands of millions of people. Of particular importance in relation to health and development, have drinking water and water resources is emerging as one of the factors of future conflict between. About 2,300 million people are affected by disease and death related to water and 3,000 billion lack sanitation. The solution 50% decline in infant mortality.

• Improving the business and its environment. The Development Cooperation is completed when the capabilities of a country have consistency to meet their social needs and articulate the embodiment of their rights. A variable is economic growth by creating a business network to encourage the production, employment and demand. It is important legal guarantees granted by the State enterprises and the population as a defense of basic services of general interest.

If met, the companies can work with prospects in the medium and long term and citizens, as well as job creation, redistribution enjoy involving public utilities. The aim is how to strengthen the productive fabric of the developing countries by linking them to the international market, opening up to foreign investment by legislating to prevent colonialism and enhancing local capacities, with respect to the environment.

The guidelines must mark the host country, without despotism they are citizens, represented by their governments, decision makers and are responsible for development projects.

• The business environment on which companies are based, is crucial for their proliferation.
  • The roads are an instrument of production and market for the settlement of business and mark the level of mobility and accessibility for people and products.
  • The provision of accessible and affordable energy is another invigorating injection of the business. Where is not guaranteed, it is difficult to reverse.
  • Credit financing for start-ups are vital due to the absence of accumulation of capital. State aid and international-oriented microcredit endogenous development are areas of realization in the various sectors.
  • The experience of local employment pacts designed to strengthen the EU in the business, can be a fruitful methodology for the developing countries. Agglutinate the commitment, participation and transparency in the negotiations.
  • Provided special support for fair trade cooperatives to produce and market local produce no distribution networks or appropriate industrial infrastructure.
• Environmental protection. In many developing countries natural heritage has a unique weight for survival and recovery. Therefore, the sustainability of its resources are presented as sectoral objective. Requires sustainable exploitation of use, proper management and incentives for the maintenance and use no predatory.

Protected areas are subject to restrictive practices that conflict with the desires of poor people who manage to gain intensive. Not offset the operating income abuse alternative eco-tourism, marketing of products under development, sustainable exploitation of the game, etc. is a requirement for people to understand, take part and responsibility in defending its ecological treasure, without entailing the loss of expected growth, urban settlement and ways to improve the standard of living.

National planning, regional and local levels is of vital importance, to prevent disasters by building in areas at risk, and rationalization of water resources, with commitments to use caps in the headwaters and downstream.

But the environmental objective focuses on all production processes, infrastructure investment, etc.. Therefore, the incorporation of the private sector is necessary and appropriate line for support of cooperation.

• Cultural diversity. Culture as a substantial element of the person, which gives it its identity and other variables that concentrates its position in the world, should receive maximum protection and respect, and is embodied in the freedom and opportunity to exercise their traditions and especially vulnerable are the indigenous systems. The AEGI Indigenous Programme states that the first requirement is the participation of indigenous communities in all projects. Along with the defense of cultural ecosystems open the possibilities of cultural research and promotion of artisanal products
• Gender equality. The situation of women in many developing countries incorporates the problems of developed societies and shows pictures of marginalization with extreme profiles. Poverty, lack of representation, legal capacity and economic opportunities are concentrated significantly in women.Eradicate any legal justification, cultural, religious allowing degrading treatment of women is a priority for cooperation.

Strengthening the network of associations of women is the mechanism for legislative reforms, developing equality plans, facilitating access to representative positions, management, … Equal access to all the mechanisms of power involves a process l support for incorporation to the business through credit, training, education and associations in a sector reserved for men.

• Anticipating the conflict. Armed conflict is the opposite of cooperation actions and generate the lack of basic rights, poverty, hunger, disease and violence that is being sought to eradicate. It is therefore a priority to solve them before they are put into effect and create setbacks in the lives and rights of the companies concerned. Security is one of the fundamental rights of individuals and practices of cooperation activities should be designed to mitigate effects and avoid conflict. Since cooperation is necessary to assist the prevention, awareness on the values of security, arms control and elimination of conditions that may favor the process of violence

7. Geographical priorities

Suffer from a colonial reflex obvious interest tinged with tactical accessories, the product of historical and cultural ties. The three priorities are geographical Spanish Latin America, North Africa and the Middle East, plus other less developed countries.

Sub-Saharan immigration has been a priority that did not include the Master Plan and will determine the Spanish Cooperation medium and long term.

• Bilateral aid adopted by a net contributor to another receiver. usually affected by historical and cultural ties, and mutual economic and trade.
• Multilateral aid, channeled through transnational agencies, usually distributed with criteria of independence, objectivity and quality standards aimed at strategic targets set by international organizations and / or United Nations.

The argument in favor of the priorities is often the best donor-recipient knowledge, experience and agreements or language. Along with such arguments often join other economic, border, security and energy supply, etc. There are three categories of countries within the geographical priorities: Priority Countries, Countries with Special Mention Preferential Countries (see box p.. 214)

8. Documents and instruments of cooperation

A relevant fact for priority countries is the State-Country Paper (CSP). It describes the priorities and commitments of Spain and the host country, showing the value of support and establishes the objective criteria of population affected, management transparency, additionality of funds and performance monitoring. Receive 70% of Spanish bilateral aid.

Unilateral cooperation of Spain has traditionally been low, but as resources grow, it becomes a priority to increase the presence, making proposals, participate in orientations and international agencies. Special mention Spanish proposal to review the activities of credit organizations linked to the demands of public institutions but recovery functions away from the private sector and small and medium enterprises, which are essential for development. Spain already spends 40% of its ODA to multilateral cooperation.

The powerful action of the EU constitutes the framework of the Spanish cooperation to the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) and other emergency actions, depending on disasters, especially war. Special confluence with Spanish interests has priority European Mediterranean which adds a necessary Neighbourhood Policy. Together with the European multilateralism, international agencies take 15% of Spanish ODA.

There are two areas of special emphasis for the need for international coordination and impact of the critical mass of support.

• Create the conditions for international market access of products of the poorest countries, without having to fight the dumping of European or North American agriculture. Is to pursue initiatives such as EBA and Cotonou Agreements, which releases all tariffs on products from the poorest countries, except arms. There are profound difficulties in the North-South relations and agricultural subsidies acquire strategic sector category and sensitive to certain developed countries, what this means.
• The prevention and immediate action in war and major disasters.’s Influence, coordination, ability, experience, appropriate personnel can request the intervention of international organizations and associations and international cooperation.

As for the instruments of cooperation there is a methodological change in the activities of international organizations, agencies and countries in channeling the funds. The classical instruments, projects and technical assistance to give way without disappearing ways of collaboration that pretend to be more synergistic, effective and efficient:

• The SWALP (Sector-Wide Approaches), or SWAps, claim the concentration of funds and the actual cooperation of the host country to carry out concerted action, led by the host government. It incorporates a conjoint analysis, agreement of partners, public sector involvement, incentives for participants, etc. It is a pact of mutual trust and a recognition that the structures of the host country have the expertise, adequate capacity and commitment. The concentration of activities replaces the isolated projects and evaluating results and monitoring becomes a vital aspect leading to conclusions.
• Budget Support. Implies greater delegation and trust in the recipient country, by previous experiences that demonstrate results and management capacity of recipient management. It involves financial support for intersectoral action.
• Global Funds, for the creation of productive, with the possibility of share capital and coordinated public and private, or incompatibilizados made compatible with other support systems, without interfering with the host country itself, or create an opaque financial network system own aid.
• The classic food aid for emergencies, but subordinate to the strategy of food sovereignty. Grant aid is a priority to achieve full autonomy against hunger.
• Humanitarian Action (AH) is the emergency aid for victims of natural disasters, war or emergency situations time or infrastructure to meet their basic needs and rights. The display of the AH for being linked to the media attention is key to governments and donor societies become aware of the need for a permanent device of solidarity. Spain tries to approach 7% of ODA for AH, average number of CAP, although in 2005 he was in 3.43%.
• These Organisations receiving public funding (447 million euros, 17.20% of bilateral aid in 2005) through projects and collaborations with objectives and requirements to ensure transparency.
• The micro-loans for creating small businesses who are not able to use the common banking and credit systems, reach 91 million euros.
• The Development Assistance Fund provides credit terms to ensure Spanish exports for productive projects, and basic infrastructure in developing countries.
• The external debt has a multilateral approach when other countries also creditors and autonomous processing when the debt is bilateral. The exchange of debt for development is the basic aim of the renegotiation or cancellation concerted and sustainability is the requirement for other credit commitment.
• The regions and local bodies take progressive commitments and take responsibility for tasks for cooperation with their own budgets. There is a marked asymmetry between the level of income or gross domestic product of the Spanish regions and contribution. Some autonomous regions such as Castilla-La Mancha, provide higher quantities, absolute and percentage terms.

Distribution of ODA by 2005 autonomous

• The Spanish University, with its University Partnership for Development, companies and unions are additional actors in specific areas closest to their roles and skills.

Item 7. Financing business and trade cooperation

Since the World Trade Center attack opens a new historical stage and enters the scene the globalization of terrorism. Led wars in Afghanistan and Iraq and collective insecurity affecting transport and the economy. Its effects were added to the already weak position of developing economies and facilitated the imposition by U.S. and other, policies and values related to security, with grave detriment of freedom and solidarity. The anti-globalization movement and its claims lost capacity for action and display, which still stands.

1. The consensus of Monterrey (Mexico)

Appears in this context a document containing the conclusions of the UN International Conference on Financing for Development. Strategic projects are:

• eradication of poverty,
• economic growth
• sustainable development
• and inclusive and fair economic system.

It is recognized that the host country is primarily responsible for development and external aid should be articulated in a manner consistent with the policies set by the government. Democratic governance, participatory and transparent is important to implement measures that are adopted international cooperation.

The importance of the receptor does not imply underestimation of the international community, as the pace of the process will depend on the ability of recipient countries connection with the processes of globalization, which is not mechanically aseptic or positive:

• It is hard to reach results that favor the development if not dealt with appropriate legal, institutional and societal enable it, if institutional practices, corruption or waste, do not meet the criteria recommended by sound macroeconomic institutional organizations representative although its observance involves sacrifices.
• When a PVD is required to control spending, forced to choose priorities, which involve leaving out areas of greatest need and urgency, not to exceed a level of debt or deficit.
• The objective of budgetary limits and macroeconomic policy is to generate the most productive environment suitable for growth which is a bias favorable to channel domestic savings and government budget or foreign aid, with production standard.
• It is clear that productive investment involves education and training of human capital, thereby establishing a general educational system and quality falls squarely within the production targets.
• Transport infrastructure and communication are key to economic and business development. They operate as a magnet for investment and modernizing impact, while facilitating the subsequent tourism market.
• A condition for the transformation is the provision of infrastructure for energy consumption by households and businesses. The security of supply and the type of energy, define the possibilities for expansion. The characteristic of the developing countries has been able to expand without limits its energy supply regardless of environmental effects. The price of energy, as well as guaranteed delivery, is one of the factors of competitiveness.
• Research and innovation can not be conceived as an exclusive privilege of developed countries. Part of the increase of scientific level in developing countries, must come by way of technology transfer and scientific, which facilitates progress and avoid unnecessary. Improvements need to establish their own research structures to generate alternatives to their researchers, raise the scientific level of the population, the value added of its products and to encourage its scientists and its own capital to stay in the country.
• Many structural investment is aimed at the company, but do not guarantee success in development contexts. You need consistency, the need to capture, organization to fulfill its goals and realistic calculation of supply and demand and cost-benefit in a given context and changing conditions. It is necessary, under the Monterrey Consensus, to value the employer, who usually brings the project and the capital. Therefore,entrepreneur training and professionalism are greatly needed because the context is a developing country, with clear gaps in tissue and industrial infrastructure.
• The small and medium enterprises make up the entire business structure of developing countries, except for public enterprises. The work of cooperation and the social worker’s own need to approach to direct and measure the impact they have on economic and social recovery of disadvantaged backgrounds.
• The aid must be channeled to productive environment and the company, respecting the laws of competition and rushing the exceptions to competition. The increase in productive wealth of a country with a consequent increase in living standards, but asymmetrical, the population is a pipe dream unless it is linked to the company and to the credit and investment priorities that need.
• Globalization has reduced the incidence of the Keynesian model, through public investment shock, the revival of industry and economy to the falling private demand in times of crisis. The interrelationship of economies, multinational corporations, the impact of international standards, etc., Descompresurizan the actions of governments restricting their country logic and therefore its result.
• Small and medium private enterprise is the need to receive aid to maintain and expand their jobs, especially those linked to the development and exploitation of endogenous values agricultural, manufacturing, craft, art, etc, which have great social impact to be, family farms or cooperatives.
• It is difficult for companies to receive assistance finalists, the public would not accept it and more contexts socially needy. Thus aid to firms from business development programs that finance a portion of the investment.
• Social Impact Of special credit schemes for business development through national institutions, which use the savings to direct productive activities and to suit the specific conditions of close and precariousness of business developers through microcredit. The crisis prevention and management of debt is credit monitoring function of the host country.
• Microloans have played an important role in the population has no chance of collateral for loans and therefore are not considered as customers in the traditional banking system. In 2006 it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize to Muhaimnad Yunus, economist and creator of 70 of microcredit in Bangladesh. The Grameen Bank, is an innovative formula to give opportunities to people in poverty, want to start a process of economic autonomy. After thirty years of the “bank for the poor” is maintained with over 100 million people who have benefited from their loans and low levels of bad debt, despite the absence of written documents requiring the receiver. The vast majority of beneficiaries are women and is expanding to developed countries.

For all management requires an objective, transparent and effective to keep it from unnecessary competition with the private sector, hampering the return on investment, and which requires effective and efficient.

Some of the criticism of the ODA is that it interferes competitive efforts undertaken by companies trying to compete in the system. It would be the acceptance of micro-macro paradox: cooperation can facilitate the solution of some problems but would harm the overall development of the economic system.

The Programme of Action for LDCs for the Decade 2001-2010 concentrates the strategies they need to overcome their situation and join the business, using aid as an additional motor.

The government’s behavior is vital to ensure investments by objective rules and legal guarantees and to become international recipient of ODA and foreign private investment. When offering these guarantees and social and political stability will be able to receive private investment that can provide essential ingredients for development:

• Creating jobs
• Technology transfer
• Scientific Transfer
• GDP growth
• Increased productivity
• Corporate culture
• Competitiveness
• Need for training of workers
• Increased trade
• Information Technology and Communication
• There countries (Ireland) and disadvantaged regions in which foreign investment has made a drastic economic change could not have materialized otherwise. This requires overcoming colonizing experiences exploitative resource investment with the complicity of governments autarkic.
• host countries may incorporate measures to protect the investments and investment entities may collaborate by lending figures, co … for the country’s structural transformation.
• Private capital flows have a dual behavior.
• which are intended for business investment, with a durable quality and profitability medium and long term
• the short cycle to rush quick profits and retire, creating instability

Monitor these incidents and impose some sort of levy in volatility is one of the claims of collective cooperation.

• The effect of foreign investment, credit support and self-development leading to the need for full membership to international trade. The global market calls for liberalization, deregulation and regulatory context.
• We are facing a double contradiction.
• Deregulation and liberalization benefits all countries and strong investor groups, which may surround the investments. The European experience has been cautious in removing trade barriers and tariffs to avoid prejudicing the poorer European countries, in addition to providing regional aid, and can be incorporated into commercial competition and equality guarantees.
• The second concerns the developed countries demand while liberalization are establishing rules that justify substantial domestic support specific productive sectors, including agriculture. 40% the budget of the EU-l5 was for farmers. Now maintained even though the number of farmers increased.
• The barrier of European and American agriculture, not only pays price dumping own business, but sets quotas on imports by product.
• This is the root of the failures of the WTO in relation to cooperation.
• The importance of international trade is such that all other actions require appropriate development consistent with the same, but are suffocated, without development or profitability, if the international trade chain does not work.
• These contradictions are reproduced in industries that require a high level of workmanship. The wage gap between the LDCs and the rich, feed the corporate relocation, if labor conditions, political stability and security of property and legal certainty.
• The trade union movement, sensitive to exclusion and poverty resulting from globalization, is argued before the relocation and produces nationalistic responses. The division between union and anti-globalization movement lies in the contradictory effects of the full incorporation to the market by the developing countries.

There’s a whole road ahead to facilitate the access of goods to the developing countries for major markets ..

Joining the international trade and development of the countries that today are in trouble, is beneficial because it involves a new area of application and business performance. Compatible solutions is a function of ODA.

2. Market Organization (WTO)

The importance of trade for the recovery of developing countries in the WTO makes a reference to criticism and claims of different sign.

The WTO is the result of the findings of the “Uruguay Round” and continuation of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) to adapt to new circumstances of international commerce.

The GATT was an agreement of 22 countries after the Second World War, decided to organize and regulate their transactions, including eliminating tariffs and developing common standards. Its beneficial effect is reflected in the 149 countries that now comprise and market level over 90% of all world trade.

Summoned, at the request of governments and companies trading periods referred to as “trade rounds” in which new agreements were made, were expanding sectors, improved law and acted in conflict resolution. Were held in Geneva, except for 1949 (Ainnecy) and 1951 (Torquay) and lasted for years.

The WTO, which operates since 1995 is a rationalization and updating of the GATT, whose reference variables were transformed quantitatively and qualitatively:

• International trade in goods has grown.
• Globalization, with the modernization of transport and cheaper energy creates the opportunities for competitive international trade.
• The services offered by companies claiming an international standard and the corresponding release.
• The information society and ICTs offer the substrate for efficient technical management, organization and information for businesses and consumers in real time.
• Logistics can coordinate, produce, transport, assemble and distribute so delocalized.
• International capital movements are multiplied.
• The growing conflicts between countries when interpreting the agreements and implementing the regulations.
• The absence of a stable organization involves not live up to demand management undertaken by the countries.
• The consensual nature of the agreements has a multitude of bilateral actions that remove transparency and effective regulation.

Therefore, the GATT then turns into WTO, and is presented

• With legal personality may influence more effectively within organizations and international decisions.
• With stable structure that allows it to be permanent forum for dialogue for its members.
• With institutional and bureaucratic capacity to undertake the complex tasks of their field.
• Standard setting organization as such, subject to consensus voting formulas and high level of dependence in its proposals
• By way of integrated multilateral trading system. GATT, which allowed each country to select the areas and products to the Agreement becomes an obligation for all, to assume the agreement establishing the WTO, the GATT 1947 and the Multilateral Trade Agreements.
• Leaves open the possibility for other geometries that can reach a Plurilateral Trade Agreement, which only affect their rights and obligations for those countries that reach and sign.

Must explicitly state that the U.S. reluctance to reach GATT range of International Organization. Assumed an independent variable limiting the comfortable and flexible call Rounds, the first requirement was the American placet. “?

The objectives of the GATT and the WTO then present a continuum with additions motivated by the evolution of business or new values that must be incorporated to be consistent with the social demands:

• Raise the standard of living in member countries through trade.
• Increasing demand for goods.
• Aspire to full employment.
• Increase the production and trade in services.
• Achieving the optimal use of resources worldwide.
• Maintaining sustainability criteria and environmental protection in commercial activities.
• ‘Make positive efforts to developing countries, especially LDCs, secure a share of growth in international trade commensurate with the needs of their economic development. “
• Ensure international trade and increasingly integrated with the same rules.
• Reducing tariffs and barriers to international trade.
• Eliminate any discrimination between countries in international trade relations.

From these principles and with the consensus, are embodied in agreements that reflect the conditions, terms, casuistry and products in international trade. Apart from overcoming the vote in the WTO, national parliaments will ratify each proposal. The agreements refer to threelarge areas of international trade:

• On trade in goods, tariff issues and other factors which may be an obstacle to the free movement of goods.
• On international trade in intangible services and new products
• BOUT the right to respect international trade and intellectual property

Both service intellectual property have maximum impact in developing countries, which typically export goods and import services. Opens a dispute over intellectual property, adding to products for health and medicine, resulting in damage to poor countries, but at the same time opens new possibilities for artistic and cultural market of the developing countries.

This policy requires increased management and intermediation of the problems facing the global demands. This will provide two-way analysis and management:

• Deficiencies Solution: If a country believes that another does not comply with WTO rules and it follows an injury, may sue correction or compensation. A panel of experts issued a report to rule and to propose measures in accordance with standard
• Review of members’ trade policies, the number of countries, the complexity of products and regulations, changes in legislation, are the cause of many conflicts. To avoid them, the WTO is a line of work, “Examination of the trade policies of its members.” The key is transparency and information policy changes introduced by each country through mandatory notifications. If you are consistent, communicated to all members, if any objections are raised to the country which proposed the reform. The WTO makes periodic analysis of the trade policies of its members.

Sometimes defending is to increase competitiveness of products from other countries demanding requirements for their exports become TBT difficult to justify, although the internal regulations thus require their own producers.

Walk at the same address sanitary and phytosanitary conditions. The accusation that the game incorporates a specific agricultural insect can stop its importation.

The WTO is also an area of asymmetric commercial interests. The claim is the basis for legislation and practices increasingly integrated, more liberalized and less fragmented:

• It encourages the opening of markets to achieve maximum fluency and use of resources
• It aims to be achieved with maximum deregulation policy to “individuals” and not interested in theoretical liberalization become a practical legal frontier
• Rejects dumping at any level by means of subsidies that distort competition.
• Prohibit agricultural export subsidies.
• Assumes, accepts and encourages special treatment for LDCs and PVM, establishing a zone of exception to competition

Developed countries want to advance the liberalization of export products: as capital goods, banking, information technology, tourism.

The priority of developing countries is only free access for agricultural products to markets of power plants and the elimination of subsidies to farmers in the EU and U.S.. Offshoring is causing the settlement in these countries and the creation of multinational companies with much of its production economy. They are particularly interested in the sectors of footwear, toys, textile arts, which depend on its competitiveness in the international market. In marketing there are communities of immigrants in the Western countries that allow distribution and sale.

In 2001 he adopted the Declaration Doha (Qatar) in the WTO reflects the malaise of the difficulties developing countries access to international markets. Presented positive, the Declaration assumes that international trade is the most effective weapon in the fight for poverty eradication and the introduction of the poorest countries to economic development.

Reflection opens the Doha Round and Development, which assumes the confluence of the measures:

• market opening,
• emergency disposal of public subsidies for exports,
• phasing out subsidies to farmers
• elimination of the quota for manufactured goods and agricultural
• exception policy for LDCs and developing countries.

No goals were achieved. The mutual recriminations between the delegations of the EU and the U.S., causing the disagreement, serve to reflect the difficulty of creating a fair trade. Electoral Difficulties of the measures can not be minimized and any import has objective effects on producers overprotected West.

The contradictions in the EU are growing at the time of negotiating the financial perspective. The small farming population, became British proposals to reduce agricultural budget incisive argument. Today he has lost weight by the addition of ten new countries, most heavily dependent on agriculture.

3. LDCs: Least Developed Countries

In 1981, in Paris, the UN held the first Conference on LDCs. They are defined according to a number of socioeconomic indicators such as poverty level, which bodes insuperable difficulties without help, to ensure their own development. The first objective was to alleviate the burden caused by unsustainable external debt, so that these courses could be re directed to development.

In 1990 he held the Second Conference concludes with the Programme of Action for the years 9O. The measures referred to did not have the commercial impact or adequate budgetary support to change the trend, most of these countries has improved but i guess, has worsened in comparative ratios.

In 2001, in Brussels, with the obvious disastrous situation meets the Third LDC Conference. The objectives for the Millennium Development Goals for the LDCs are made, starting to reduce by half in 1990-2015, the percentage of people hungry. The LDCs should aim to proceed with the same rigor as other developing countries:

• Assume primary responsibility for all policy aimed at its own development and not delegate to the ODA or the conditions granted in international trade.
• Ensuring a participatory democratic governance and transparency in management.
• Prioritize the production, enterprise development and management of endogenous resources.
• Join the international trade of competitiveness and trade concessions and optimizing international lending
• Raising the level of education, training and skills of the population.
• Achieving food self-sufficiency as a step towards food sovereignty.

These conditions would, from developed countries, an overall increase in ODA and the success of the Doha proposals that have not been translated. The failure of the 2006 Doha Round failure becomes the Third LDC Conference (2001), because the elimination of public policies to support agriculture and the opening of markets and tariffs has been achieved.

The EBA Initiative grants preferential access to products from LDCs as a trademark, only to Europe except for military use, the goods of those countries will be free of tariffs and quotas. Buyer need at a competitive price and suffer the public subsidies EU internal.

Of the 49 countries that make up the list of LDCs (11% of world population), 34 are African and 14 coastal Atlantic.

Human Development Index (HDI) developed by the United Nations Program for Development (UNDP) presented a list of countries that seeks to capture with more precision than the GDP, the real development situation. Binds to the economy of the health situation, with life expectancy index and educational status. Variable not directly introduce governance, which can be vital and would alter significantly the order

The HDR 2005 has to Norway in the first place Spain in the No. 21 and closing the list to Niger in 177. Thirty of the thirty-two countries with a lower index are in Africa and the last ten, too: Mozambique, Burundi, Ethiopia, Central African Republic, Guinea Bissau, Chad, Mali, Burkina Faso, Sierra Leone and Niger, one of the key migration Africa to Europe. (Table 240)

The stampede effect has a direct bearing on the failure of cooperation and the HDI. The pull effect, resulting from the legalization of 600,000 undocumented sociologically has not been weighted and is a component of the political struggle that prevents dissociate the effects of poverty and governance in the countries of origin.

Not only the poorest countries receive this type of immigration, such as Mali: not coastal but their socioeconomic conditions are similar, is the fourth country with the worst HDI and third in level of poverty. Employment and wealth equipment, issued by European broadcasters, encourages change. As the transport is better and less expensive, the chances of entry into Europe affect all modalities.

LDCs outside Africa, America and Asia, make up a similar category, with different social structures in which institutional conditions are consolidated but failed in their development projects (Table pag. 241)

In each other there is a negative synergy of disease, poverty and military conflicts that undermine their chances of stability and recovery.

The response of European countries against illegal immigrants is uneven in time, in law and in the deal. Receiving States in times of economic expansion (Germany, France, Belgium, ..) have increased controls. Others (Spain, Italy, Greece, …) in a position of growth, new areas are being uncontrolled arrival or diplomatically negotiated. The proximity of the coast of Africa can justify some but not and the vast majority arriving by air or on the French border. African immigration, represents between 5% and 10% of the total.

The divergent legislation making the EU’s external border controls have led to each face up to its own threads. The peculiarity of African immigration, with shore boats and absence of bilateral agreements on extradition, has posed problems and reactions of community character.

The satellite tracking systems and successive agreements complicate the way, increase the wrecks and dead, and increase the cost of the ticket (450-2000 $).

The European Agency for Borders (Frontex), through the operation I and Hera II, established the first devices to cover the access of boats and kayaks.

Table of immigrants who arrived on the shores of southern Europe with all its characteristics is of utmost importance to ascertain the migration cycle.

Increased ODA is an urgent requirement and direct effects on socio-economic structures of developed nations. The recognition that migration is enabling high growth and the difficulties of controlling the not legally, xenophobic outbreaks, is a new social problem that takes precedence and effect electoral

4. A SYNERGETIC ODA

Its fertility is in direct proportion to the fulfillment of conditions by all agents. It is hard to capitalize ODA recipient if the government looks the other way or have interests other than those of development, but if they meet the national and international conditions, introduces an added value and generates a dynamic that can make feasible sectoral programs difficult to cut, “particularly in countries whose capacity to attract private direct investment is minimal”

It can be seen as a haven from international law, again the European regional policy can serve as a reference: aid to poorer regions are intended to adapt to the conditions of the international economy, not evade it.

The first requirement for donor countries to increase the budget up to 07%, which would be used between 0.15 and 0.20% for LDCs. Stagnant budgets for cooperation is different justifications. The disappearance of the two blocks discourages political mechanism underlying investment in cooperation, disappeared the danger arises alternative fatiguedonor, although justified by the lack of results. She touches the ground in 1997 with only 0.22% of GNP for ODA but in some countries represents 13% of its GDP, less than 15 and 20%, as its GDP is very small.

In 1961 the UN recommended by 1% in its proposal of the First Development Decade. The 0.7% is the recommendation of the Second Decade, 1970, but is still demanding the 1% transfer target.

The non-binding nature of these requests is the cause of the estrangement between statements and reality, one must overcome the previous stage and have binding resolutions, guidelines for application, conditions and performance objectives.

The difficulty is the evaluation of the quality, profitability, performance and results. So far the cooperation has been inconsistent and that the conditions of the problem under the action be maintained without noticeable improvement. Therefore seeks a synergy of public mechanisms, private, national, international as ODA to achieve the critical mass, institutional commitment and socio-economic effect that will produce positive results.

Cotonou Agreement

The lines of European cooperation have been ruled by the Convention of Lomé (Togo). Since 1975 the criteria were lack of comprehensiveness, but in 2000 it reached Cotonou (Benin) which means, in the framework of the Millennium Development Goals The new strategy of cooperation for the ACP-EC. Europe, Africa, Caribbean and Pacific countries base their relations on three main objectives of integral development. Overcoming poverty and underdevelopment are the result of joint actions in the field of political dialogue (democracy and rights), economic relations and trade and development aid as a supplement. The receivers will play the lead role and defining and the EU will defend in the forums needed positions in line with these budgets. The failure of the Doha Summit (2006) has been a brake on commercial aspirations, one of the main levers.

AFRICAN COUNTRIES. CARIBBEAN AND PACIFIC (ACP)

COTONOU AGREEMENT

1) OBJETVO

Create a new framework for cooperaci6n among members of the ACP group and the EC and is a response to globalization, to promote and expedite the economic, cultural and social development of ACP States, contribute to peace and security, and promoting a stable and democratic political climate.

2) ACT

2000/483/EC: Partnership agreement between the ACP and the EC and its Member States signed in Cotonou on June 28, 2000.

3) SUMMARY

GENERAL FRAMEWORK

Context

It represents a new phase of cooperation, which began in 1964 with the signing of the Yaoundé Convention and continued with the four Lomé Conventions until 2000. Given the limited success of non-reciprocal trade preferences of the old conventions and the need to adapt to international processes such as globalization, technological change and social change, the agreement establishes a new approach to cooperation in this field.

Main objectives of the Agreement

Reducing and eventually eradicating poverty and the gradual integration of ACP countries into the global economy, consistent with the objectives of sustainable development.

General approach

It is proposed to strengthen the political dimension, to ensure flexibility and give more responsibilities to the ACP States. It is based on three dimensions: politics, commerce and development, sectoral and integrated approach. Interventions should refer to a specific sector (health, transport, etc..) And combine aspects of cooperation (economic, social, etc.) Better targeted aid.

The duration of the agreement is twenty years with five-year review clause.

Pillars of the association

The partnership is based on five interdependent pillars:

• a comprehensive political dimension,
• the promotion of participatory methods
• development strategies and a focus on the goal of reducing poverty,
• the creaci6n of a new framework for economic and trade cooperation
• cooperation reform t’lnmiciera

PILLAR I: POLITICAL DIMENSION

The essential elements are as follows

• Political dialogue
• Policies for the consolidation of peace and the prevention and resolution of conflicts. It will focus mainly on regional initiatives and local capacity building, contains provisions for financial resources are not diverted from development goals.
• Respect for human rights and democratic principles based on the rule of law and transparent and accountable.
• Good management of public affairs, with a specific procedure to be applied in serious cases of corruption.

PILLAR II: DEVELOPMENT OF METHODS PAILTICIPATIVOS

It provides an important role to design and implement strategies and programs: the role of civil society and NGOs must be strengthened to ensure a substantial contribution. Participation depends on certain criteria for their management and their organization

PILLAR III: STRATEGIES AND FOCUSING ON THE PURPOSE OF REDUCING POVERTY

The integrated approach of the partnership highlights three priority areas:

• Economic development contract in:
  • investment and private sector support
  • policies and macroeconomic and structural reforms
  • sectoral policies (eg, development of industry, trade and tourism).
• Social and human development: The dimensions are:
• social sector policies (education systems, health …. and the integration of population issues in strategies)
• aspects of youth (protection of rights of children and youth)
• cultural development (protection of traditions and cultural heritage).
• Integration and regional cooperation: are designed to facilitate development in all sectors, including natural resources and the economic and social problems. It aims to:
  • accelerate diversification of the economies of ACP States,
  • promote and develop trade between ACP countries and within countries and third parties, benefits the LDCs
  • implement sectoral reform policies at regional level.

Cooperation is foreseen in fisheries and food security. The priorities will be set for each country and the principle of differentiation will be key

• Thematic and cross-cutting, provides for the consideration of three cross-cutting issues:
  • equality between men and women,
  • sustainable environmental management, which addresses issues such as tropical forests, water resources, desertification, renewable energy, etc.
  • institutional development and capacity building.

PILLAR IV: ESTABLISHING A NEW FRAMEWORK FOR ECONOMIC AND TRADE COOPERATION

Enter changes to the system to adjust to WTO rules and to allow ACP to participate fully in international trade.

New trade agreements to liberalize trade, ending the non-reciprocal trade preferences enjoyed by ACP, but will remain in force until 2008. The negotiation of new regional economic partnership agreements with the CEMAC (Economic and Monetary Community of Central America) and ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States) began in October 2003. Be taken into account the social and economic problems in two ways:

• through development policies and human (combating poverty)
• through cooperation and the strengthening of the capacities of ACP States in international fora

Trade-related areas. The trade cooperation is not limited to traditional commercial activities, also affects other related areas, such as protection of intellectual property rights, employment law, etc..

Business Outlook for the least developed ACP States. Esteba plans to improve the system so that by 2005, exporters from LDCs benefit from duty-free access for almost all of its products to the EC market.

PILLAR IV: REFORM OF FINANCIAL COOPERATION

The guiding principles of financial cooperation reflects the general approach of the partnership:

• Consistency, flexibility and efficiency guaranteed by a unique evolutionary programming, by country or region, accompanied by periodic reviews
• Evolution of the type of assistance to programs or sectoral budget support,
• Indicative allocations, and acquired rights
• General approach: involving non-state actors
• Local-level Dialogue, Calendar, and coordination from the initial phase

Rationalisation of the instruments of cooperation

To simplify the process and to provide greater flexibility is expected to streamline cooperation instruments, particularly in regard to the EDF, the main instrument for Community assistance to the ACP. No longer be divided into several instruments with rigid allocation systems and resources will not be blocked to achieve a specific goal. All resources will be provided by two pieces

• Grants – Instrument grants: are administered jointly by the Commission and the ACP States. Each country will receive a lump sum.
• Venture capital and private sector lending – investment fund. This new instrument, will be managed by the EIB, which may invest in loans, equity and quasi equity, and may provide guarantees to support private investment, domestic and foreign

Programming System Reform

The new system increases the flexibility of the partnership and gives greater responsibility to the ACP States evolutionary programming system that eliminates the concept of non-programmable aid. The ACP will have greater responsibility for defining objectives, strategies, and actions, and management and program selection.

The program is structured to take the results. The are no longer an automatic right, are allocated based on an assessment of needs and performance criteria reflecting the objectives of the partnership, horn development, institutional reform, poverty reduction, etc..

The main programming tool is the national advocacy strategy. It is made by one for each ACP, together with the Commission and the State. Establish an overall direction for the use of aid and supplemented with a roadmap that will include specific operations and a timetable for implementation.

We have created an annual review mechanism bread adapt the strategy, program or resource. In the intermediate and final phase of the implementation period, the review must involve a consideration of the cooperation strategy guidance to confirm or suggest the appropriate settings and adjust the volume of resources allocated. Agents are expected to be involved in situ in accordance with decentralization.

The programs will be subject to evolutionary programming system based on the same components, although the program review will be made only at the intermediate stage and final.

Agreement on assistance if the fluctuation of export revenues

The need for additional support vulnerability stems from the high degree of dependence on export earnings from agricultural or mining sector in the ACP. STABEX and SYSMIN instruments of the old conventions may not be extended. The new system helps ensure assistance through funds appropriated in the country support strategy and operational programs.

Financial resources. They have a five-year term are:

• Development Fund (FED): 13.500 million
  • Remnants of the previous EDF: + 9900 million
  • BLED own resources: 1,700 million euros.

Procedures for application and enforcement officials responsible for

The officials responsible for implementation are:

• the host,
• the NAO
• Head of Delegation.

Is scheduled to vest the administrative and financial responsibilities to the Head of Delegation, in particular, the financial decision-making power for projects not exceeding a certain amount.

INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

Maintaining the joint institutions set up by former Lomé Conventions:

• Council of Ministers
  • Committee of Ambassadors,

Council of Ministers. Composed of members of the Council of the European Union and the European Commission and a member of the Government of each ACP country, meets once a year at the initiative of the Presidency, held alternately by a member of the Board and of the Government of an ACP, and in different geographical areas. The functions are:

• conduct the political dialogue,
• adopt the policy guidelines and decisions necessary for the implementation of the provisions of the Agreement
• discuss and resolve any issues that might hinder the implementation of the Agreement
• ensure the effective operation of consultative mechanisms.

May take decisions that are binding on the parties and make decisions, recommendations and advice, and may delegate to the Committee of Ambassadors.

Committee of Ambassadors. Assists the Council of Ministers, composed of permanent representatives of Member States to the EU, a representative of the Commission and the heads of mission of the ACP to the EU. The chair shall be an alternative.

Joint Parliamentary Assembly. It is a joint consultative body composed of representatives of the EU, MEPs and representatives of the ACP: You can adopt resolutions and make recommendations to the Council of Ministers. It meets two times a year in plenary session.

PROVISIONS RELATING TO THE LEAST ACP advanced that landlocked and island.

Special treatment is given to these and those emerging from conflict to speed up development in times of vulnerability. Special attention is on strengthening regional cooperation, development of transport and communications infrastructure and food strategies.

EMERGENCY AND HUMANITARIAN AID

They are short-term measures to tackle serious economic and social problems caused by exceptional natural disasters or crises such as war. These relief measures such as aid to refugees, the development of mechanisms for prevention and preparedness against natural disasters etc, and are financed through the indicative program for the State concerned and the Community budget

FAILURE OF THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF AGREEMENT

Measures are envisaged in case of default by a Party concerning the essential elements of the Agreement, respect for human rights and democratic principles and the rule of law. It allows a consultation procedure to remedy the situation but is not found an acceptable solution may be adopted other measures, including suspending the agreement ultimately

In Fiji, following the 2000 coup and consultations with the Republic in this regard, the Commission decided to take action so that suspended certain aspects of the aid or give a new orientation. In 2003, in consideration of the positive developments in the political situation, the EU decided to gradually resume cooperation.

Source: European Commission

The experience of the last forty years of cooperation and new approaches and facilitated by the United Nations, direct reflection and action with new criteria. Colonization and decolonization are at the bottom of the causes of poverty. All countries have some responsibility for the economic development of the various areas of poverty, we all have known that their effects are not limited to countries that suffer. The solution should be agreed between donors and recipients, giving prominence to the latter without making cooperation or a political weapon or wealth and linking trade and cooperation.