Glossary of Art and Architectural Terms
A
Compluvium
An opening in the atrium of Roman houses with a sloping roof towards the interior, allowing rainwater to collect in the impluvium or central pond. This system provided some water self-sufficiency in dwellings.
C
Canon
A rule of human figure proportions, accepted as the ideal type by Greek sculptors, whose highest aspiration was perfect proportion in an idealized natural form. Polykleitos’s famous canon is the practical form of the theoretical principles formulated in his work called “Kanon”. The system of proportions in Polykleitos’s main work, The Doryphoros (Classical Greek Sculpture, 5th century BC), is based on the application of simple arithmetic relations, determined by a total height of seven heads. The numerical factor plays a decisive role in the rhythmic expression of symmetry. These proportions changed over time and between artists. For example, Lysippos achieved greater stylization, extending the canon of his sculptures to a total height equal to eight heads, as in the Apoxyomenos (Classical Greek Sculpture, 4th century BC).
Chiaroscuro
This term refers to the tonal contrasts of color in painting, mimicking the unequal incidence of light on objects in reality. It is specifically applied to highlight bright figures against a dark background, creating the illusion of depth or three-dimensionality in a two-dimensional space. The sharp contrasts between light and shadow are known as “tenebrism,” characteristic of the Caravaggio artistic trend, especially widespread since the early 17th century, which uses stark contrasts of light and shade so that the light parts stand out violently against those that are not. Example: Death of the Virgin by Caravaggio.
Column
An architectural element with a cylindrical support section, unlike the pillar, which has a square section. It usually consists of: base, shaft, and capital. Columns have very different forms depending on periods and artistic styles and may sometimes appear detached. It consists of: the base (bottom of the column which supports the shaft), the shaft (composed of several drums or a single piece), and the capital (top of the column, pillar, or pilaster, which varies according to time and style). The Greeks created the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, which have had much influence on Western architecture. The capital is decorated with moldings or decorative elements (abacus, horses in the Doric order, scrolls in the Ionic order, and acanthus leaves in the Corinthian order) that tops the shaft and on which rests the element supported by the column (the entablature). Its function can be structural or simply decorative. The classical orders are: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Romans added the Tuscan and Composite orders.
Dome
The part of a building that covers a circular, square, polygonal, or elliptical space. When covering a square space, the transition to the circular area is achieved through pendentives and squinches. There are many types of domes, but one of the most common is shaped like half a sphere. Sometimes the dome is visible from outside the building; sometimes it is hidden and only seen from the inside. Normally, the dome is located on a drum or tholobate, and its apex often has an oculus to aid internal lighting. One of the most characteristic examples is the dome of St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican by Michelangelo (16th century, Italian Renaissance). In the Baroque period, the dome reached its greatest development, with notable examples such as the dome of Borromini’s church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane.
Celosía
An openwork lattice or screen made of wood, metal, stone, or any other material, used to enclose windows or balconies, allowing one to see through them without being seen from outside. In Spain, we have unique examples from Asturian art, although its development is parallel to Hispanic-Muslim art (Alhambra), where they are called ajimez and are common in Toledo’s convent architecture.
Enjuto (Spandrel)
A triangular area bounded by the outer curve of an arch and the lintel or between two arches. This area is often richly ornamented. It is a decorative rather than structural element, typically Roman, widely used since the Renaissance. In Muslim architecture, it is called a spandrel and is situated between the arch and the panels or moldings framing an arch span for decorative purposes, starting from the imposts or springing points (e.g., the mihrab of the Mosque of Cordoba, 10th century). They can also be seen in examples such as the Arch of Titus in Rome.
E
Entasis
A widening of the shaft of a column, about a third of its height, used by the Greeks to correct the optical effect of narrowing perceived by the human retina. Located in the center, it makes the column appear straight instead of concave, as it might appear without the entasis. It can be used to date a building, as in the architecture of the Archaic period it was much more pronounced than in the Classical period, where it softens, finding its greatest perfection in the Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens (5th century BC).
F
Forum
The main square of a Roman city, equivalent to the Greek agora, which hosted the market, meetings, and the main civic and religious buildings. In cities with a geometric plan, it is located at the intersection of the two main streets, the cardo maximus and the decumanus maximus. The most important forum of the Roman Empire during the Republican era was the Roman Forum, the central area around which ancient Rome developed. There were forums in other areas of the city; the most important are the Imperial Forums: the Forum of Caesar, the Forum of Augustus, and Trajan’s Forum. The main square in Spanish cities is the heir to the Roman Forum.
Fresco
Painting done al fresco, i.e., on a wall covered with fresh, wet plaster made of water and lime. The colors are diluted with water and spread on the still-wet plaster. Fresco painting was widely practiced in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, although the oldest frescoes date from the Mesopotamian civilization. This technique was perfected by Flemish painters Jan and Hubert van Eyck (15th century) to obtain surprising results: vivid colors, detailed rendering, and more nuanced effects achieved by applying successive layers or glazes. Example: Arnolfini Portrait by Jan van Eyck.
Front (Law of Frontality)
A term coined in the late 19th century, referring especially to Egyptian and Archaic Greek art. Today it is interpreted as follows: the line passing between the eyebrows, nose, and navel divides the body into two equal and exactly counterbalanced halves. This law reduces contemplation to a single viewpoint. Frontality is reinforced by the positioning of the arms at the sides of the torso and the stiffness of the neck. It reflects the representational techniques developed at the time. For example: The Triad of Menkaure.
Frontón (Pediment)
A triangular top crowning a façade, door, or window, characteristic of Classical and Renaissance architecture, and styles inspired by them, such as Neoclassicism. It encloses an inner space called the tympanum, which may be decorated or plain. It is typical of classical temples of Greece and Rome, in which the pediment was the most important element of the façade in terms of decoration, as reliefs and statues were placed inside it (in the tympanum itself). Example: East Pediment of the Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens (second half of the 5th century BC). A curved pediment develops a segment of an arc on its horizontal base. In some styles, both curved and triangular pediments may appear broken. A clear example appears on the façade of Sant’Andrea in Mantua.
G
Garlands
An ornamental motif of foliage, flowers, and fruits, generally joined with ribbons, gathered at the ends and buckled down in the middle. They may appear hung on the horns of bucrania. Widely used in Roman decoration, as seen in the Ara Pacis, and continued to be used in styles derived from classical art.
Grabado (Printmaking)
A technique of printing on paper using a plate, which contains the design to be reproduced. The plate is inked and pressed onto the paper. If the plate is made of wood, it is called a woodcut; if copper or other metal, an engraving or etching; and if stone, a lithograph. More modern is the use of fabric (silk) to achieve the same effect, known as serigraphy. Great printmakers include Dürer, Rembrandt, Goya, and Picasso.
S
Stylobate
: Completion of Greek origin that means the surface on which rests the columns of a building, is the culmination or last step of the stepped base on which they stand classical temples. Frontón: Top triangular top a façade, a door or window characteristic of classical architecture and Renaissance-inspired by her, Neoclassical, leaving an inner space called the eardrum, which may appear decorated or lis. It is typical of classical temples of Greece and Rome in which the fronton was the most important element of the façade in terms of decoration, as in the interior (in the ear drum itself) were placed reliefs and statues. Example, East Pediment of the Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens, the second half of the V a. C. Is called a curved pediment that develops on its horizontal base an arc segment, in some styles, this and the triangular, may appear broken. A clear example appears on the cover of San Andrés de Mantua. Fresco: Painting done al fresco. Ie on a wall and after repeal or water and lime plaster. The colors are diluted with water and spread on the still wet plaster. Fresco painting was practiced widely in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, although the oldest frescoes date from the Mesopotamian civilization. This technique was perfected by Jan and Hubert van Eyck Flemish painters to art (s. XV) to obtain surprising results: vivid colors, let the details stop in slower drying and more nuanced provided by the application of successive layers or glazes. Example Arnolfini Marriage by Jan van Eyck.
Front: (Law of the frontal). Term coined in the late nineteenth century, referring to the Egyptian and archaic Greek art on everything. Today is interpreted as follows: the line passing between the eyebrows, nose and navel, you divide the body into two equal and exactly counterbalance. This law reduces the contemplation of a single viewpoint. The front is reinforced by the provision of arms to the sides of the torso and neck stiffness. Responds to a time-developed techniques of representation, for example: The triad of Menkaure. Forum: Main square of the Roman city, equivalent to the Greek agora, which hosts the market, the meetings and where were located the main civic buildings and religious. In the cities of geometric plane is located at the intersection of the two main streets, the cardo maximus and the maximum decumano. The most important of the Roman Empire, the republican era, was the Roman Forum was the central area around which ancient Rome developed. There were forums in other areas of the city, the most important are the Imperial Forums are the Forum of Caesar, the Forum of Augustus and Trajan’s Forum. The main square is heir to the Spanish cities of the Roman Forum. Garlands: Reason ornamental foliage, flowers and fruits generally joined with ribbons, gathered at the ends and buckled down in the middle. May appear hung on the horns of the bucráneos. Is widely used in Roman decoration, as seen in the Ara Pacis, and continued to be used in styles derived from classical art. Recorded: Technique of printing on paper with an iron, which contains the reason you want to play and that is inked and if the plate is referred to as wood engraving, if copper or other metal intaglio and if a stone is a lithograph. More modern is the use of fabric (silk) to achieve the same effect, known as serigraphy. Once inked printing plate by pressure on the paper. Great writers were Dürer, Rembrandt, Goya and Picasso.