Glossary of Spanish History: Key Terms & Concepts
Africa
Referred to the military, specifically those who spent most of their careers in the colonial army stationed in the Protectorate of Morocco. The constant battles to subdue the Rif tribes, while costly in lives, allowed survivors to quickly climb the military ranks through merit-based promotions earned in war (Franco, a notable Africanist, became a general at 33). Envied by other officers, they developed a caste spirit and became hostile towards politicians. Their experience in Africa significantly shaped the army commanders who later rose up against the Second Republic.
Advisory National Assembly
In 1927, Primo de Rivera attempted to institutionalize his regime by creating the National Consultative Assembly. Its composition was corporatist (one member from each province, one from each Patriotic Union organization, others representing culture, labor, trade, etc.). Assembly membership was by nomination, breaking with the liberal tradition of parliamentary representation and universal suffrage. It lacked legislative power or shared sovereignty; its function was to prepare general laws for the government’s consideration.
Autarky
A phase of the Spanish economy during the early Franco regime that aimed to overcome the limitations of the international market (affected by World War II) and the political and diplomatic restrictions imposed on Franco by the Allies. It sought to achieve self-sufficiency in the domestic market through domestic production, replacing imports of foreign goods. This policy resulted in corruption, severe shortages, and famine, leading to its abandonment in the early 1950s.
Battle of Teruel
During the Civil War in late 1937, after Franco’s forces captured the northern front, the Republican government launched an offensive in December to prevent an attack on Madrid. They chose to conquer Teruel, a Nationalist salient within Republican territory. The city was besieged and, after fierce fighting in the winter, occupied by Republican troops in January 1938. However, Franco organized a strong counter-offensive, leading to a brutal battle in the snow, and eventually recaptured the city by the end of February.
Battle of the Ebro
The most significant battle of the Spanish Civil War. The Republican government launched the offensive to relieve pressure on other fronts. In July 1938, the Republican army crossed the Ebro River, surprising the enemy and capturing territory. Franco reacted swiftly, and after a grueling battle, managed to wear down and destroy the Republican army. In November 1938, the defeated remnants of the Republican forces retreated, marking a turning point in the war.
International Brigades
A body of foreign volunteers from various nationalities who came to Spain to support the Republican side during the Civil War. Organized by the international community, the Brigades’ members held diverse political views, though predominantly left-wing. They played a crucial role in defending Madrid in late 1936 and actively participated as shock troops on various fronts. The last brigades left Spain in late 1938.
CAMPSA
The Compañía Arrendataria del Monopolio de Petróleos, S.A. (CAMPSA) was founded in 1927 by Finance Minister José Calvo Sotelo. Considered his greatest achievement, it was a business organization that encompassed the supply, transportation, refining, and distribution of crude oil and fuel. However, it failed to break Spain’s dependence on foreign oil companies and became fragmented, ultimately reduced to gasoline distribution.
CEDA
Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas (CEDA). A Catholic and authoritarian political party founded in Madrid in March 1933 through the merger of various right-wing forces (Acción Popular, Derecha Regional Valenciana, etc.). Led by José María Gil Robles, it became the main opposition to the left-wing government. CEDA achieved significant success in the November 1933 elections and supported Alejandro Lerroux’s Radical party in forming a government. Suspicions among left-wing groups led to the October 1934 revolution, triggered by the announcement of CEDA ministers joining the government. After helping the government quell the uprising, CEDA’s opposition to leftist policies radicalized following the February 1936 elections, with some members advocating for forceful solutions.
Constitution of 1978
Following Franco’s death in 1975, King Juan Carlos I ascended to the Head of State, inheriting the dictator’s political system. However, he immediately advocated for establishing a democratic system. After some hesitation, the Law for Political Reform was passed in January 1977, and Spain’s first free elections since 1936 were held in June. The new Cortes’ primary task was drafting a constitution, adopted in 1978 and ratified by referendum. It is the most democratic constitution in Spanish history, establishing a parliamentary monarchy with a bicameral system and extensive self-government for the various territories comprising Spain (the Autonomous State).
Crisis of 1929
A global capitalist crisis caused by overproduction, primarily affecting industrialized countries like the USA, England, and Germany. Spain, with its less internationally integrated economy, remained relatively unscathed but experienced some consequences. Spanish emigration, a mechanism for alleviating internal tensions, halted. Additionally, foreign trade suffered due to protectionist policies adopted by countries to defend their production.
Decree of Unification
Issued by Franco in April 1937 during the Civil War, this decree unified the various Nationalist forces into a single organization called the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS, under his leadership. Also known as the National Movement, it had clear totalitarian and fascist elements.
Disaster of Annual
A location in Northern Morocco that lends its name to a devastating defeat of the Spanish Army in the summer of 1921 during an attempt to occupy the Spanish protectorate. The Spanish lines collapsed, and their positions were overrun. The command’s failure to organize a retreat resulted in thousands of soldiers killed and captured.
Alhucemas Landing
The military occupation of Northern Morocco (Rif), assigned to Spain, faced fierce resistance from the Rif tribes. The 1921 Disaster of Annual highlighted the difficulties. Primo de Rivera committed to resolving the issue and, in 1925, organized a powerful force that landed at Alhucemas Bay, deep within Rif territory. The operation was a military success, defeating the tribes. Their leader, Abd-el-Krim, fled and surrendered to the French.
Civilian Directory
A decree on December 3, 1925, replaced the Military Directory with a civilian government. However, the Council of Ministers retained ultimate power, including legislative authority, as a rule stipulated that Royal Decrees approved by the Council would have the force of law. Primo de Rivera became President of the Council of Ministers, and General Martínez Anido (known for his harsh repression of gangsterism in Barcelona) joined as Vice President and Minister of the Interior. Other civilian ministers were generally chosen for their technical expertise: Conde de Guadalhorce (Development), José Calvo Sotelo (Finance), etc.
Military Directory
On September 15, 1923, three royal decrees were issued. The first dissolved the elected Congress of Deputies and Senate. The second temporarily suspended certain constitutional guarantees, confirming the declaration of a”state of war” The third established the new executive structure, creating the Military Directory, responsible for governing the country. Chaired by Primo de Rivera (who also held the rank of Minister), it had the power to propose decrees to the King, with the force of law, for the good of the nation. The Directory consisted exclusively of military officers: the President and, as members, a Brigadier General or equivalent from each military region and a Navy Admiral.
Statute of Autonomy
A legal instrument enabling a region to exercise self-government. It defines each territory’s powers and the regional power structure. The first Statute of Autonomy was granted to Catalonia in 1932, in accordance with the Second Republic’s Constitution, but was repealed in 1938. The 1978 Constitution reinstated political and administrative decentralization, and autonomy statutes became widespread, providing a legal basis for the 17 autonomous communities.
Black Market
A term coined during the Second Republic, initially referring to a roulette trick introduced to Spain by two German Jews, Strauss and Perlo. It gained its true meaning in the immediate postwar period, referring to the illicit trade in essential goods during the 1940s, a time of widespread hunger and scarcity, driving up prices. The black market allowed businesses and unscrupulous individuals to amass wealth.
ETA
Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (Basque Country and Freedom). A terrorist organization of radical Basque nationalism that emerged in the 1950s as a splinter group from the PNV’s youth wing. Influenced by Marxism, it advocated for Basque liberation through armed struggle. ETA began committing murders against police in 1968 and assassinated Prime Minister Carrero Blanco in 1973. After democracy was established, the organization split. One faction accepted amnesty and laid down arms, while another continued its terrorist campaign, adopting a new strategy: the”socialization of pai” through mass attacks against civilians. Its political focus has increasingly emphasized ethnic identity.
FAI (Iberian Anarchist Federation)
Founded in secrecy in 1927 by prominent anarchists (Durruti, Ascaso, García Oliver), the FAI advocated for direct revolutionary action, collectives, and sought to purge the large anarcho-syndicalist union, the CNT, of communist or reformist influences. During the Second Republic, FAI members gained control of the CNT, pushing out moderates. Their constant confrontations with the Republic (insurrections and wildcat strikes) weakened the libertarian movement, radicalized other labor organizations, and harmed the Republican regime.
Falange
Founded by José Antonio Primo de Rivera in 1933 as an anti-liberal, anti-Marxist, nationalist, and totalitarian movement. In 1934, it merged with other groups with similar ideologies to become the Falange Española de las JONS. The Falange advocated for violence to impose its ideology, but its electoral results were always poor. During the Republic, its militants engaged in constant street clashes with Socialists and Communists. The Falange’s role intensified during the Civil War, and its ideas influenced the Nationalist movement, although its principles, despite their rhetorical use, were never fully implemented.
Popular Front
An alliance of Republican and workers’ parties (Socialists, Communists, and Anarchists) formed for the February 1936 elections to prevent the rise of right-wing groups. Their agenda included amnesty and rehabilitation for those accused in the October 1934 events. The Popular Front narrowly won the elections, and President Niceto Alcalá-Zamora appointed Manuel Azaña as Prime Minister.
Jurisdiction of Spaniards (1945)
One of the Fundamental Laws of the Franco regime. It resembled a declaration of individual rights but with the caveat that their exercise was subject to ordinary laws emanating from the government. In practice, this meant that their enjoyment depended on the authorities’ decisions, as they could be suspended.
Charter of Labor
Published in March 1938 during the Civil War, it became one of the Seven Fundamental Laws of the Franco regime. Inspired by the Italian model, it aimed to reorganize the world of labor. The text had totalitarian and fascist overtones and incorporated traditional Spanish Catholic values. It created official trade unions for employers and workers, organized by industry, with their headquarters within the FET de las JONS.
Generalitat de Catalunya
A Catalan government institution that originated in the Middle Ages and was suppressed by Philip V in the early 18th century. It reappeared as a symbol of Catalan autonomy in 1931, and the 1932 Statute established it with a parliament, a government, and a Court of Cassation. After the Civil War, it continued to operate in exile until its reinstatement in 1977 with the return of its president, Josep Tarradellas, to Spain. Jordi Pujol presided over the Generalitat from 1980 to 2003.
Guernica
A Basque city with great symbolic value for Basque nationalism, as it houses the tree under which Basque privileges were traditionally sworn. In April 1937, during the Civil War, German aircraft bombed and completely destroyed the city, killing many civilians. It was the first instance of mass bombing of civilians, which became a psychological weapon in 20th-century warfare.
General Strike of 1917
A labor conflict with a political objective (to facilitate the reformist bourgeoisie’s access to power) that occurred during a period of social unrest. The Socialists aimed to contribute to political change in Spain. The strike, which had an uneven impact due to the failure to mobilize the peasantry, paralyzed national life for a week. The attempt failed because the bourgeoisie became frightened, and the government declared a state of war. The numerous incidents resulted in nearly a hundred deaths. The socialist strike committee was imprisoned.
Instituto Nacional de Industria (INI)
A public body established in 1941 by the Franco regime, inspired by the Italian model, as an instrument of autarkic policies. It aimed to stimulate private initiative and replace it where it was lacking. Its main purpose was to promote industrialization as the basis for a developed and independent economy. It focused on heavy industries (steel, petrochemical, mechanical) to achieve import substitution.
Condor Legion
A German military unit sent to Spain to support Franco during the Civil War. Composed primarily of air force personnel under German command, it played a key role in numerous operations, including the bombing of Guernica, which had a significant impact. Its presence gave Franco air superiority and contributed to his victory.
Maastricht Treaty
Signed in Maastricht, Netherlands, in December 1991 by the European Union countries. It marked the start of the process towards achieving convergence for the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU). It established convergence criteria for countries wishing to adopt the single currency: inflation no more than two points above the average of the three countries with the lowest inflation, a government deficit not exceeding 3% of GDP, and public debt not exceeding 60% of GDP.
Manifesto of Lausanne
Issued in Lausanne, Switzerland, by Prince Juan de Borbón (1913-1993), son and heir of King Alfonso XIII, in 1945. This document offered the Spanish people a representative government (constitutional monarchy and rule of law with political pluralism and regional autonomy) while overlooking the responsibilities for the past civil war.
National Movement
The name adopted by the Francoist side during the Civil War, synonymous with the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS. Franco, its supreme leader, never considered it a political party but rather a “fellowship of Spaniards in the ideals of July 18, 1936,” thus legitimizing the revolt against the Republican government. Its ideology had clear authoritarian, if not totalitarian, elements.
Pact of San Sebastián
During his rule, Primo de Rivera faced various conspiracies and violent attempts, from diverse political factions, seeking to overthrow him. All failed. In 1930, after Primo de Rivera’s fall and amidst a severe crisis of the monarchy, Republicans began organizing their path to power. On August 17, 1930, leaders of various anti-dynastic groups, including Catalan nationalists, met in San Sebastián to plan for a future Republican Spain (guaranteeing religious freedom, electing a Constituent Cortes, and granting regional autonomy). It was an unwritten agreement, open to interpretation by each participant. Basque nationalists, deeply Catholic and opposed to the gathering’s anticlerical elements, did not participate.
Moncloa Pacts
Signed in October 1977 between Adolfo Suárez’s government, various opposition political parties, and Spanish trade unions. It was a concerted effort (consensus) to overcome the challenges facing Spain during its transition to democracy, with the primary goal of drafting a democratic constitution. The unions agreed to economic sacrifices necessary to address the pressing issue of high inflation in exchange for progressive social legislation.
PNV
Partido Nacionalista Vasco (Basque Nationalist Party, EAJ in the Basque language), founded by Sabino Arana in 1894 with the slogan “God and ancient laws.” Its goal was to recover the provincial liberties lost in 1839 and achieve full independence for a Basque state encompassing the seven Basque provinces. After Arana’s death in 1903, it became a fully established party, gradually expanding its influence throughout the Basque provinces, competing with the Carlists. It was an ultra-Catholic organization, heavily influenced by the Church. During the Second Republic, it secured a Statute of Autonomy for the Basque Country. After Franco’s death, it regained prominence in Basque society, advocating for the right to self-determination as a step towards its independence goal.
Stabilization Plan
The Stabilization and Liberalization Plan of 1959 marked a significant turning point in Spanish economic life during the Franco regime. It averted Spain’s financial bankruptcy and laid the groundwork for the economic growth of the 1960s (the “Spanish Miracle”). It stabilized public finances by reducing spending, established a more realistic value for the peseta, facilitating exports, and addressed the persistent shortages affecting the balance of payments.
Development Plans
A fundamental instrument of economic policy during the Franco regime, enabling impressive growth in national wealth. The plans were indicative for the private sector and mandatory for public investment. There were three Development Plans: the first (1964-1967), the second (1968-1971), and the third (1972-1975). With a focus on developing various Spanish regions, they led to an intense process of industrialization.
Events of Casas Viejas
A violent rural episode with significant political consequences. Casas Viejas was a village in the municipality of Medina Sidonia (Cádiz). In 1933, during an anarchist uprising (aiming to establish libertarian communism) against the Republican government, a group of rebels took refuge in a hut and engaged in a shootout with the police. The police set fire to the hut, killing the rebels. An investigation to determine responsibility implicated Prime Minister Manuel Azaña, severely damaging his political standing.
Universal Suffrage
The right to vote for all adult citizens. Its introduction in Spain was a long historical process that began in the early stages of the liberal regime. The 1812 Constitution granted limited universal male suffrage, as women were excluded from political rights according to the prevailing values of the time. It was abolished shortly after and did not reappear until 1890, when it was definitively established, albeit limited to men, within Spanish liberalism. The 1931 Republican constitution extended universal suffrage to women.
Treaty of Accession of 1986
An agreement signed between Spain and the European Community that paved the way for Spain’s integration, along with Portugal, into what would become the European Union.
Treaty of Paris, 1898
Signed in Paris in December 1898 between the United States and Spain, ending the Spanish-American War. Spain recognized Cuba’s independence and ceded Puerto Rico and the Philippines to the United States. It also granted Guam to the United States as war compensation. Spain received $20 million in compensation for the Philippines.
UCD
Unión de Centro Democrático (Democratic Center Union). A political party founded in 1977 from the Center Democratic coalition. It encompassed former Francoists, conservatives, democrats, liberals, and social democrats. Its most prominent leader was Adolfo Suárez. After his resignation as Prime Minister, Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo led the party and government. Its political project was to implement democratic reforms in Spain, which it achieved by winning the 1977 and 1979 parliamentary elections. It was a diverse coalition with weak cohesion. After 1981, it began to disintegrate, and the massive electoral defeat in 1982 led to its demise.
Patriotic Union
This attempt to create an official party in power emerged as an institution for support and mass mobilization. It was hierarchically structured, with Primo de Rivera as its national leader, assisted by a National Directory and Assembly. Throughout the country, there were 50 provincial assemblies and directories and hundreds of local cells. Numerous civilian juntas, established under the auspices of the Patriotic Union’s local cells, promoted educational activities, aimed to raise moral and civic standards, and collaborated with the government. It was an artificial and diverse group, mixing sincere idealists with opportunists seeking government positions and officials at all levels. It was characterized by passivity and limited ability to motivate any significant action.