Golden Age Spanish Literature: Gongora and Theater
Work of Luis de Góngora
Poetic Language and Style
Luis de Góngora, a respected and renowned poet of his time, developed a brilliant poetic language and unique style known as culteranismo. His poetry aimed to transform reality into a new world of beauty through metaphors. Góngora’s work is characterized by its aesthetic and sensory nature, appealing to the reader’s intellect rather than emotions.
Learned Poetry
From his early sonnets, Góngora displayed a penchant for learned poetry. This tendency intensified after 1609 when he moved to Córdoba, disillusioned with the court. During this period, he wrote his great poems, The Fable of Polyphemus and Galatea and The Solitudes, which elicited both admiration and rejection.
Góngora’s culteranismo is characterized by:
- Learned vocabulary: Use of sophisticated words.
- Complex syntax: Long sentences, hyperbaton, and subordinate clauses.
- Abundant metaphors: e.g., feathered lyre for birds, fields of silver for the sea.
- Mythological allusions: References to classical myths.
- Conceptist games: Witty and intricate wordplay.
The Fable of Polyphemus and Galatea
This long poem, based on Ovid’s Metamorphoses, narrates the Cyclops Polyphemus’s rage when he discovers the love between the nymph Galatea and the young Acis. Polyphemus crushes Acis with a rock, and his blood transforms into a river. Góngora’s innovative use of language, far removed from the common tongue, requires effort and knowledge to decipher the mythological allusions and metaphors.
The Solitudes
Góngora planned a four-part poem but completed only the first and most of the second. The First Solitude tells the story of a young castaway who is welcomed by goatherds. The Second Solitude describes the young man’s encounter with fishermen and hunters. The narrative serves as a platform for Góngora’s hymn to nature, simple life, and everyday objects, transforming them into beautiful wonders through metaphors. The contrast between the humble subject matter and the richness of language is striking.
Traditional Lyricism
Góngora’s Romances and Letrillas represent his traditional side. These poems, initially circulated orally, were later collected in Romanceros. They cover various themes, including pastoral, lyrical, Moorish, mythological, and captive narratives. Some blend classical mythology with burlesque humor, as seen in The Fable of Pyramus and Thisbe. Gongora’s ballads and satirical letrillas often showcase wit and concise concepts.
17th-Century Spanish Theater
Religious Drama
Religious drama flourished in the form of sacramental plays, short allegorical pieces performed outdoors in front of churches. These plays explored themes of the Eucharist and the conflict between good (represented by allegorical figures) and evil (personified by the devil), culminating in the triumph of good.
Court Theater
Court theater thrived in palace halls and gardens, particularly during Philip IV’s reign. Innovations in stage design allowed for spectacular effects, such as flying characters and elaborate scenery, creating dazzling performances for the court audience.
Comedia and Public Theaters (Corrales)
Public theater, known as corrales, achieved immense popularity in 17th-century Spain, with playwrights like Lope de Vega and Calderón de la Barca. These plays were significant social events, as theater was the most popular form of entertainment.
Corrales: Structure and Audience
Corrales were open courtyards surrounded by houses, with a stage at one end, often lacking scenery or curtains. The audience stood in the courtyard, with benches available for a fee. The boisterous mosqueteros (musketeers) stood at the back, expressing their approval or disapproval. Women were seated in a separate, raised area called the cazuela (cooking pot). Later, galleries were built for women. The nobility occupied the aposentos (boxes), balconies rented seasonally.
Scenic Elements and Language
Initially, the lack of scenery allowed for flexibility in setting but required the text to provide context through descriptions. Later, corrales incorporated scenery and stage effects borrowed from court theater.
Performances and Structure
Performances took place in daylight, lasting several hours, with interludes for the audience. The show began with a loa (a verse prologue), followed by the first act of the play. Entremeses (short, humorous pieces) were performed between acts, along with songs and dances. The performance concluded with a farce or another entremés.
Comedia: A Broad Term
The term comedia encompassed a wide range of plays, including comedies and dramas that blended tragic and comic elements. Thus, comedia had a broader meaning than its original definition.
The popularity of public theater led Philip III to convert a palace courtyard into a corral, allowing the court to enjoy performances alongside the common people.