Grammar Expressions of Manner, Means, and Possession
Grammar Expressions
Manner, Means, and Instrument (GR 15)
Expressing Manner
Adverbs traditionally modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. However, they can also modify nouns, as in “the room downstairs is still vacant.” Due to their heterogeneity, adverbs are a complex part of speech.
Adverb Formation and Classification
Many adverbs of manner and degree are formed by adding “-ly” to adjectives (e.g., carefully). Spelling changes may occur:
- Final “y” changes to “i”: lucky -> luckily
- Final “e” is retained: nice -> nicely
- Adjectives ending in “-able/-ible” drop the final “e”: sensible -> sensibly
- Adjectives ending in a vowel + “l” double the “l”: mortal -> mortally
- Adjectives ending in a consonant + “le” drop the “e”: gentle -> gently
The suffix “-wards” forms adverbs of direction (e.g., backwards). The prefix “a-” also forms adverbs (e.g., abroad).
Adverb Position and Semantic Roles
Adverbs can be classified by form (simple, derivative, compound, phrases), content (manner, time, frequency, place, degree, etc.), and position (pre-subject, pre-verbal, post-verbal, pre-adjective, miscellaneous).
As clause constituents, adverbs can be adjuncts (integrated within the clause), disjuncts (showing attitude), or conjuncts (relating grammatical units).
Adverbs modify adjectives (e.g., too clever, clever enough), often as intensifiers (really cute), amplifiers (very upset), or downtoners (rather selfish). They also modify other adverbs (e.g., very fast) and noun phrases (e.g., the above paragraph).
Expressing Means
Means adjuncts provide information about the method used to perform an action. They are typically expressed with adverbials, adverbs ending in “-ly,” prepositional phrases, and adverbial clauses, usually placed at the end of the clause.
Expressing Instrument
Instrument adjuncts specify the tool or device used. They are often expressed with prepositional phrases (e.g., “with a wrench”) or adverbs that can also function as manner adjuncts (e.g., “microscopically”). They usually appear at the end of the clause.
Possession (GR 16)
Theoretical Framework
Possession answers questions like “Whose is this?” and “What do you possess?” It is primarily expressed using the Saxon genitive (‘s) and the of-phrase.
Expressing Possession
Morphology and Possession
Nouns can directly reference possession when semantically explicit (e.g., “owner”). The possessive case is formed differently for single and multiple possessors:
- Single: possessor + ‘s + possessed (e.g., the boy’s computer)
- Multiple: possessors + ‘ + possessed (e.g., my friends’ party)
Verbs (e.g., have, own) and possessive adjectives/pronouns (e.g., my, our, mine, ours) also indicate possession.
Phonology and Possession
The pronunciation of the “-s” genitive depends on the preceding sound:
- Voiceless sounds: /s/
- Voiced sounds: /z/
- Sibilant sounds: /ɪz/
Syntax and Possession
The -‘s genitive functions as a determiner, while of-phrases are postmodifiers.
The -‘s Genitive
Used with:
- Personal names
- Personal nouns
- Collective nouns
- Animals
- Geographical/institutional names
- Temporal nouns
- Measurements of time
- Nouns related to human activity
The of-Genitive
Used with:
- Inanimate possessors
- Possessor nouns followed by phrases/clauses
- Expressions of measure, partition, and apposition
- Newspaper headlines
Other Syntactic Structures
These include:
- Genitive with ellipsis (e.g., “He has a car like John’s.”)
- Double genitive
- Group genitive
- Idiomatic expressions
Semantics and Possession
Different semantic roles of the genitive include possessive, appositive, subjective, objective, descriptive, partitive, measure, and origin.
References
- Greenbaum S. 2000. The Oxford Reference Grammar. Oxford: OUP.
- Quirk R. et al. 1985. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman.
- Jespersen O. 1973. Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. London: Longman.