Habsburg Spain: Charles I and Philip II’s Dominance
Charles I: A New Dynasty and Vast Inheritance
Charles I was the first king of the new Habsburg dynasty in Spain. Due to a well-planned marriage policy, Charles I inherited a wide range of territories and also became Holy Roman Emperor (as Charles V).
Territorial Inheritance
The territories he inherited include:
- From his mother’s side (Joanna of Castile):
- From Isabella I, his grandmother: Castile, Navarre, Granada, the Canary Islands, territories in North Africa, and the newly discovered territories in America.
- From Ferdinand II, his grandfather: The Crown of Aragon, Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia.
- From his father’s side (Philip I of Castile):
- From Mary of Burgundy, his grandmother: Artois, Flanders, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Charolais, and the Franche-Comté.
- From Maximilian I, his grandfather: Austrian territories and the right to the title of Holy Roman Emperor (meaning he could be elected Emperor).
Charles inherited these territories progressively.
Internal Problems in Spain
When Charles I arrived in Spain in 1517, he was a young prince (only 16 years old) who could speak neither Spanish nor Catalan and was unfamiliar with Spanish institutions.
He was surrounded by Flemish counsellors who were given important ecclesiastical and political positions, receiving significant income and benefits from these privileges.
During his initial three-year stay, his rule faced criticism. He granted privileges to foreigners, disregarded the Cortes (parliaments), could not speak the local languages, and left the territories in 1519 to claim his imperial title, demanding more funds from the Cortes.
This angered various social groups, leading to revolts in Castile and Aragon.
The Revolt of the Comuneros in Castile (1520-1521)
This revolt erupted due to several factors: Charles I’s disregard for the Cortes‘ authority, granting privileges to foreigners, demanding funds for his imperial coronation, and his departure from Castile.
Numerous cities revolted, including Toledo, Salamanca, Segovia, Zamora, and Madrid.
Participants included the lower nobility and urban bourgeoisie. The high nobility initially remained neutral but eventually sided with the King.
Notable leaders included Juan de Padilla, his wife María Pacheco, Juan Bravo, and Francisco Maldonado. All were executed after the defeat at Villalar in 1521, except María Pacheco, who escaped to Portugal.
The royal army defeated the comuneros at the Battle of Villalar in 1521, crushing the revolt.
The Revolt of the Brotherhoods (Germanías) (1521-1523)
This was another significant revolt, primarily in Valencia and Majorca, involving artisans and guilds against the nobility.
International Relations and Conflicts
Charles I’s vast empire necessitated a complex foreign policy, marked by conflicts with France, the Lutheran princes, and the Ottoman Empire.
France: Rivalry with Francis I
Conflict with France stemmed from the personal rivalry between King Francis I of France and Charles I. Both sought control over the same territories, particularly in Italy. This led to numerous confrontations and shifting alliances, with significant victories and defeats for both sides.
A key event was the Battle of Pavia (1525), where Francis I was captured and held hostage in Madrid. Subsequently, imperial troops sacked Rome in 1527 (Sack of Rome), taking the Pope hostage.
This phase of the conflict concluded with the Treaty of Cambrai (1529), known as ‘The Ladies’ Peace’, which affirmed Charles’s hegemony. Charles retained control of Milan, Flanders, the Netherlands, Artois, the Franche-Comté, and Tournai, while Francis I retained control of the Duchy of Burgundy.
Three subsequent wars occurred during Charles’ reign against France, with Francis often allying with Charles’s enemies, like the German Protestant princes. A final, fifth war during the early reign of Philip II resulted in a decisive French defeat, ending these disputes for a time.
The Ottoman Empire
Another major challenge was the Ottoman Empire, led by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. The Ottomans ruled a vast and prosperous empire stretching across Asia, Africa, and Europe, posing threats in the Mediterranean, North Africa, and Central Europe.
- Mediterranean and North Africa: Constant naval confrontations occurred, resulting in the loss of Algiers and Bougie to Ottoman-aligned forces.
- Continental Europe: The Ottomans posed a serious threat. Following the Battle of Mohács (1526), the Turks annexed parts of Hungary and besieged the imperial city of Vienna in 1529.
The German Princes and the Lutheran Reformation
The Protestant Reformation began in 1517 with Martin Luther’s 95 Theses. This was both a religious and political issue, as many German princes supported the Reformation to gain control over church institutions and taxes, and increase their independence from the Emperor.
Charles V sought consensus, convening the Diet of Worms (1521) for theological discussion. Luther attended but refused to recant his views and was subsequently excommunicated.
The Emperor also waged war against the Protestant German princes organized in the Schmalkaldic League. The imperial army defeated the League at the Battle of Mühlberg (1547).
However, the conflict persisted, culminating in the Peace of Augsburg (1555), which formally accepted the religious division of Germany under the principle cuius regio, eius religio (whose realm, his religion).
Philip II’s Reign
Philip II did not inherit the imperial title, allowing him to focus on his other possessions, particularly the Spanish territories.
Domestic Policy and Administration
He established a highly centralized, authoritarian monarchy, controlling both domestic and international policy. He established Madrid as the permanent capital, fostering the growth of bureaucracy.
Key institutions included the Councils (Consejos, similar to ministries), Corregidores (royal representatives in local areas), and a growing body of civil servants.
As royal power increased, the influence of the Cortes declined. They were convened infrequently, and their decisions often disregarded.
Religious Policy
Philip II was a staunch defender of Catholicism both within and outside his domains. In the Iberian Peninsula, his religious policy focused on:
- Combating Protestantism.
- Supporting the Inquisition in persecuting Protestants and Conversos (Jews and Muslims who had converted to Catholicism).
- Repressing the Moriscos (descendants of Muslims who had converted). They were forbidden from using their language, clothes, and traditions, leading to the Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1568–1571) in Granada, which was ultimately suppressed.
Annexation of Portugal
A significant event was the annexation of Portugal in 1580. Following the death of the Portuguese king without a direct heir, Philip II successfully claimed the throne based on dynastic rights. This union brought Portugal’s vast overseas empire in Africa, Asia, and America under Spanish control, creating the Iberian Union.
Revolt in the Netherlands
Calvinism gained traction in the northern provinces of the Netherlands. Philip II’s attempts to suppress Calvinism and centralize control triggered a revolt in 1566, initiating a long struggle (the Eighty Years’ War) that spanned several reigns.
Spanish troops, known as the Tercios, were sent to quell the rebellion. The presence of these soldiers often led to problems, including pillaging, looting (like the ‘Spanish Fury’ in Antwerp, 1576), and significant loss of life.
Economy and Society in the 16th Century
Economic Trends
During the 16th century, under both Charles V and Philip II, Spain experienced significant price inflation. This ‘Price Revolution’ was largely driven by the influx of gold and silver from the Americas, which reduced purchasing power and lowered living standards for many, despite the apparent wealth.
Social Structure
Spain’s population grew throughout the 16th century. Society was rigidly stratified into a privileged class (nobility and clergy) and a non-privileged class (peasants, artisans, and bourgeoisie). Groups like the Moriscos and Conversos faced discrimination and persecution.
Philip II’s Foreign Policy
Philip II’s foreign policy was dominated by rivalry with France, conflict with the Ottoman Empire, confrontation with England, and the ongoing revolt in the Netherlands.
Conflict with France
Rivalry with France continued from Charles V’s reign. France sought Habsburg territories and challenged Spanish supremacy in Europe. However, this phase of the conflict was relatively brief during Philip’s early reign. The Spanish army achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Saint Quentin (1557). The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559) formally ended the Italian Wars, acknowledging Spanish dominance in Italy for nearly a century.
Conflict with the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire remained a major power and a significant threat to Spanish interests and possessions in the Mediterranean. Philip II organized a Holy League (including Venice and the Papacy) which decisively defeated the Ottoman fleet at the famous naval Battle of Lepanto (1571). While a major victory, it did not end Ottoman naval power in the Mediterranean.
Rivalry with England
England, under Queen Elizabeth I, viewed Spanish control of the Atlantic and its support for Catholicism as a threat. Consequently, England supported privateers (corsairs) like Francis Drake who attacked Spanish shipping and aided the Protestant rebels in the Netherlands.
Both strategies weakened Spanish power and prompted Philip II to launch the Spanish Armada in 1588 to invade England. The invasion failed disastrously, largely due to storms and English naval tactics, marking a significant blow to Spanish prestige and naval power.