Habsburg Spain: Decline, Conflicts, and Bourbon Reforms
The Baroque Era in Habsburg Spain
During the reign of the Habsburg minors in Spain, the validos, or favorites, were powerful figures. These individuals, members of the aristocracy, enjoyed the monarch’s complete trust. While the monarch was still the head of state, the validos often made key decisions and governed the institutional system. Instead of relying on traditional advisory bodies, they created their own factions. This new system led to increased corruption. Key validos included the Duke of Lerma under Philip III, the Count-Duke of Olivares under Philip IV, and Fernando Valenzuela during the regency of Mariana of Austria, as well as the Duke of Medinaceli under Charles II.
Internal Conflicts in Habsburg Spain
The 16th-century conflicts manifested as a tension between centralizing and decentralizing forces. The crown sought to homogenize its territories, following the model of powerful Castile. However, other territories sought to maintain their own laws and institutions. Philip III continued a policy of religious intolerance, expelling the Moors in 1609. This measure particularly affected the Kingdom of Aragon, causing depopulation in Valencia and a shortage of agricultural labor. Under Philip IV, the Count-Duke of Olivares tried to make all peninsular kingdoms collaborate on the same level as Castile in war efforts. This overwhelmed the monarchy with financial difficulties, especially during the Thirty Years’ War. Olivares’ project, known as the “Union of Arms,” triggered the 1640 crisis.
The Crisis of 1640
The monarchy’s huge military efforts in Europe, particularly the Thirty Years’ War, and the demands on the kingdoms to contribute to the crown’s expenses, led to the 1640 crisis. This crisis had two main scenarios: Catalonia and Portugal. When the Catalan institutions refused to accept the “Union of Arms,” and the presence of Castilian troops led to revolts. In Barcelona, peasant groups attacked the viceroy and other authorities. The lack of Castilian support against Dutch attacks on Portuguese possessions in Asia, and the presence of Castilian troops, led the Portuguese to seek independence. The rebellion, organized around the Braganza dynasty, spread rapidly. With support from England and France, Portugal finally achieved independence in 1668.
The Decline of Habsburg Spain
The reign of Philip III (1598-1621) was relatively peaceful. Spain and its enemies were exhausted after continuous wars. Conflicts with France, England, and the Dutch rebels were resolved with a truce. However, under Philip IV (1621-1665) and his favorite, the Count-Duke of Olivares, Spain was again involved in major European conflicts. The Spanish monarchy participated in the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648), supporting the Habsburgs of Vienna and Catholic German princes. The war ended with the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), which recognized Dutch independence. The war with France continued until 1659, when Philip IV accepted territorial losses in the Peace of the Pyrenees. The weak monarchy of Charles II (1665-1700) was unable to stop French expansionism under Louis XIV, leading to further territorial losses. His death without an heir led to the War of the Spanish Succession.
Economic and Social Crisis in the 17th Century
The 17th century was a period of economic crisis in Europe, particularly in the Mediterranean and the Iberian Peninsula. Demographic problems, such as epidemics and famines, were common. Agriculture declined, aggravated by the expulsion of the Moors. The sheep industry faced difficulties, and commerce entered a recession. The competition from France and England, along with the exhaustion of American mines, worsened the situation. The crisis led to a decline in the circulation of money. The government’s economic policies further exacerbated the situation. Spanish society was marked by a polarization between the wealthy and the impoverished peasantry.
Mentality and Culture
Spanish society continued to be marked by aristocratic and religious values. Concepts like “honor” and “dignity” were highly valued. There was a rejection of manual labor. Instead of investing in productive activities, people with economic means sought to ennoble themselves. In culture, the figure of Cervantes (1547-1616) and his “Don Quixote” (1605 and 1614) stood out, along with other literary figures like Lope de Vega and Góngora.
The War of the Spanish Succession and Bourbon Reforms
Charles II, who died without an heir, appointed Philip of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV, as his successor. This led to the War of the Spanish Succession, as other European powers supported the Austrian Archduke Charles. The war was both a civil war within Spain and a European conflict. Philip V, supported by Castile, represented a centralizing model, while Charles, supported by Aragon, represented a more federalist model. Philip V won the war, but the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) resulted in territorial losses for Spain, including Gibraltar and Menorca.
The Bourbon Reforms
Philip V (1700-1746) implemented centralizing measures, including the New Plant Decrees (1707-1716), which abolished the charters and institutions of the kingdoms of Aragon. A new territorial administration was established, dividing the territory into provinces, replacing viceroys with captains general, and introducing the figure of the intendant. Municipalities were led by corregidores. The Bourbons also reformed the central administration, establishing an absolute monarchy. The councils were suppressed, except for the Council of Castile, and secretariats of dispatch were created.
The Enlightened Despotism of Charles III
Charles III (1759-1788) applied the principles of enlightened despotism. The 18th century was a period of economic recovery, although unequal. Censuses were carried out to assess the fiscal potential of the country. There was a growing awareness of the need to reform agriculture. Associations like the Economic Societies of Friends of the Country were created, and plans for land reform were proposed.
Spanish Foreign Policy in the 18th Century
Under Philip V, Spanish foreign policy focused on recovering Italian territories. After initial failures, Spain allied with France through the Family Pacts (1734 and 1743). This led to Spanish participation in the War of the Polish Succession and the War of the Austrian Succession. As a result, Philip V’s son, Charles, became King of Naples and Sicily, and his son Philip became Duke of Parma. Under Ferdinand VI (1746-1759), Spain adopted a neutral foreign policy. Charles III (1759-1788) returned to the alliance with France, signing the Third Family Pact (1761) and participating in the Seven Years’ War (1761). The British victory led to the Treaty of Paris (1763), in which Spain ceded Florida to England and Sacramento to Portugal. In return, France ceded Louisiana to Spain. Spain also supported the North American rebels against England. The British defeat led to the Treaty of Versailles (1783), which allowed Spain to recover Menorca, Florida, and Sacramento. The reign of Charles IV (1788-1808) was marked by the French Revolution and the subsequent war against Napoleon.