Harappan Civilization: Society, Urban Life, and Agriculture
Functions of Rulers in Harappan Society
Archaeologists have differing opinions on the structure of leadership in the Harappan society. Some believe there were no rulers, and everyone held equal status. Others propose that there wasn’t a single ruler, but several.
Evidence suggests a remarkable uniformity in Harappan artifacts, including pottery, seals, weights, and bricks. Notably, bricks, despite not being produced in a single location, maintained a consistent ratio across the entire region, from Jammu to Gujarat.
It is likely that under the guidance of rulers:
- Plans and layouts of cities were developed.
- Large structures like buildings, palaces, forts, tanks, wells, canals, and granaries were built.
- Roads, lanes, and drains were constructed, and cleanliness was maintained.
The ruler likely played a significant role in the economy, encouraging farmers to boost agricultural output and motivating craftsmen to enhance various handicrafts. The ruler also promoted internal and external trade, issuing standardized coins or seals, weights, and measurements.
During natural disasters like floods, earthquakes, or epidemics, the ruler provided grains and essential supplies to the affected population. They also played a crucial role in defending cities from external threats.
Harappan Culture: An Urban Civilization
The Harappan culture is considered an urban one for several reasons:
- Cities were meticulously planned and densely populated.
- Roads were straight and wide.
- Houses were constructed with burnt bricks and often had multiple stories.
- Each house typically had a well and a bathroom.
- An excellent drainage system was in place, with house drains connecting to street drains.
- The citadel of Harappa housed public buildings.
- Lothal served as a dockyard and a vital trading center.
It is noteworthy that after the decline of the Harappan culture, town planning was forgotten, and city life was absent for approximately a thousand years.
Agricultural Technology of the Harappans
Agriculture was the primary occupation of the Harappans. The discovery of grains indicates the prevalence of agriculture, although reconstructing the exact agricultural practices is challenging. Archaeologists have uncovered evidence of a plowed field at Kalibangan.
Representations on seals and terracotta sculptures suggest that bulls were known, leading archaeologists to infer that oxen were used for plowing. Terracotta models of the plow have been discovered at sites in Cholistan and Banawali. The field at Kalibangan had two sets of furrows at right angles, indicating that two different crops were grown simultaneously.
Most Harappan sites are situated in semi-arid regions, where irrigation was likely necessary for agriculture. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan. It is also probable that water drawn from wells was used for irrigation. Additionally, water reservoirs found in Dholavira may have stored water for agricultural purposes.
Raw Materials for Craft Production and Procurement
The Harappans used a remarkable variety of materials for craft production, especially for making beads. These included:
- Stones: Carnelian (a beautiful red color), jasper, crystal, quartz, and steatite.
- Metals: Copper, bronze, and gold.
- Other: Shell, faience, and terracotta (burnt clay).
To obtain these materials, the Harappans likely employed several strategies:
- Established settlements in resource-rich areas like Nageshwar, Shortughai, and Balakot.
- Sent expeditions to regions such as the Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and South India (for gold).