Hellenistic Philosophy: Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism, and Neoplatonism
Hellenistic Philosophy: Key Schools and Concepts
**a) 4th Century BC to 1st Century BC:**
Three schools of thought are prominent during this period:
- Stoicism: Founded by Zeno of Citium, Stoicism had a significant influence on Christianity. Stoics taught at a stoa (a covered walkway or portico). This school can be divided into three periods:
- Old or Greek
- Middle (of little importance)
- Roman: The most representative period, reaching its greatest expansion.
Notable Stoics include Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Stoics believed that everything is organized by a universal law, or Logos, which governs life. Achieving ataraxia (tranquility) involves living in accordance with nature and accepting one’s destiny. There are two ways to approach this: losing dignity by wanting to change things and complaining, or accepting things with a smile. Stoicism left a legacy that influenced Christianity, promoting solidarity among all people based on equality.
- Epicureanism: Founded by Epicurus of Samos, “The Garden” was rooted in the atomism of Democritus. Epicureans aimed to eliminate fears that disturb ataraxia, particularly the fear of the gods. They sought beatitude through pleasure, prioritizing spiritual pleasures like reading and friendship.
- Skepticism: Skeptics questioned the validity of knowledge due to two main issues:
- Reality is multiple, complex, and difficult to know.
- Human capacity is limited, and there is no assurance that the senses show us reality.
Three questions arise about the nature of knowledge:
- How can one know? Through relativism, there is no universally basic knowledge.
- What is the consequence of relativism? No opinion, because all are in error; this is called epoché.
- What is the consequence of departing from knowledge? Ataraxia (tranquility of the soul).
Skepticism often accompanies any interpretation from a scientific point of view, and is synonymous with humility.
**b) 1st Century BC to 3rd Century AD:**
The same schools continue, but with a greater emphasis on religious mysticism.
**c) 3rd to 4th Century AD:**
This is the last period of Greek philosophy, marked by the emergence of Neoplatonism.
Neoplatonism
Neoplatonism was influenced by Eastern thought, although it remained fundamentally Greek. It is represented by two main figures: Philo of Alexandria (Jewish) and Plotinus (Egyptian). Philo attempted to reconcile the Old Testament with Platonic and Aristotelian thought. Plotinus established a renowned school in Rome and incorporated Philo’s emanation theory: God is perfect, so everything that emanates from God is eternal, like God. Hypatia (355-414) was the last representative of this school, a great mathematician, astronomer, and director of the last museum. She also practiced medicine and died tragically.
Aristotle’s Theory of Motion
Aristotle identified two elements to explain changes in physical reality:
- Potentiality (Dynamis): The possibility of being. This is limited and has not yet come to be, although matter has the disposition to become something according to its inherent possibilities. Everything comes from a raw material, potentially infinite, from which everything can exist.
- Actuality (Energeia): When a potentiality is developed, change is called “act” (equivalent to form).
There are two types of changes:
- Substantial: Related to the generation and corruption of a substance.
- Accidental: Alters the substance without fundamentally changing it. Accidental changes can be:
- Qualitative (altering a quality)
- Quantitative (altering the quantity)
- Locative or translational (altering the place)
Aristotle argued that change in nature requires a cause, a first mover. He proposed two explanations:
- Physical: There must be an unmoved mover, something mechanical that generates the first motion.
- Metaphysical: There is a perfect, pure act, without matter, that attracts everything that exists, resulting in motion or change.
Aristotelian Cosmological Dualism
Aristotle divided the universe into two parts:
- Sublunary World: The Earth is at the center, stationary. Nature is divided into living beings and inert beings. All living beings have a soul, which is the principle of life. Aristotle described three types of souls:
- Vegetative: Responsible for birth and nutrition, the simplest. It is found in plants.
- Sensitive: Responsible for sensation and movement in animals. Animals also possess the vegetative soul.
- Rational (Nous): Responsible for knowledge and ethical behavior in humans. Humans also possess the vegetative and sensitive souls.
- Superlunary World: Around the Earth, in concentric spheres, are the other three elements: water, air, and fire. Beyond these is the realm of the stars and heavenly bodies, made of a fifth element called Aether. This element is perfect, eternal, and does not degrade. This realm is composed of 34 spheres, the last of which contains the stars that move with the sphere. Beyond that, nothing is finite.
Hellenistic Philosophy After Aristotle
After the death of Alexander the Great, the Greeks faced a sense of loss and a new reality characterized by individualism and cosmopolitanism (the idea of a universal city). This period saw the development of the schools of thought discussed above.