Hispanic America: 16th and 17th Centuries
ITEM 6. Hispanic America: 16th and 17th Centuries
1. Introduction
The modern age emerged with a cultural revolution and a new political model, the modern state, driven by:
- Humanism
- Scientific and geographic advancements
The discovery of America was propelled by several factors:
- Economic: Seeking new wealth sources and a shorter route to the Indies.
- Political: Royal ambition for territorial expansion.
- Religious: Spreading Christianity and countering Islam’s control in the Eastern Mediterranean.
- Social and Cultural: The humanist spirit of adventure and new technologies like the compass and caravel.
Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor, proposed reaching the Indies by sailing west. Initially rejected by Portugal, he secured support from the Catholic Monarchs.
2. Discovery and Conquest
During the Granada War, the Catholic Monarchs initially declined Columbus’s proposal but later accepted it, signing the Stipulations of Santa Fe. Columbus was named admiral and viceroy of discovered lands, receiving a tenth of the riches.
The journey began in August 1492, sighting land on October 12th. The first island was named San Salvador. Columbus made several voyages, reaching the continent but believing he had arrived in the Indies.
The Treaty of Alcaçovas recognized Spain’s possession of the Canary Islands. Pope Alexander VI’s Inter Caetera bull granted Spain the discovered lands, establishing a demarcation line. The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) later shifted the line, granting Portugal Brazil.
The rapid conquest of America was due to:
- Military superiority (firearms, armor, horses).
- Initial perception of Spaniards as gods by natives.
- Desire for riches.
The conquest spanned 50 years, divided into three phases:
a) 1500-1520: Conquest of Caribbean islands and Antilles.
b) 1520-1550: Conquest of Aztec and Inca empires. Hernán Cortés defeated Montezuma, and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Incas.
c) From 1550: Consolidation of territories, expeditions to North and South America, and across the Pacific to the Philippines.
3. American Colonization
A significant negative impact was the decline of the indigenous population due to:
- Biological factors: Diseases like measles and typhoid.
- Wars
- Exploitation: Harsh treatment by the Spanish.
- Miscegenation: Intermixing with the Spanish.
A racially stratified society emerged, with whites at the top, followed by mestizos, Indians, and Africans.
Economics
The encomienda system was established, where Indians worked for encomenderos in exchange for food and education. Despite debates and new laws, the Indians faced harsh conditions.
Trade with Spain initially varied but later focused on precious metals (silver, gold, pearls). The Potosí mine in Peru was a major source.
New crops were introduced, but agricultural development was hindered by transport and trade barriers.
Livestock farming led to large estates with vast herds.
By the 17th century, the American economy became more self-sufficient.
Acculturation and Indian Exploitation
Debates arose regarding the treatment of Indians. Bartolomé de las Casas advocated for their rights, while Ginés de Sepúlveda argued for their subjugation.
Acculturation also affected language, though pre-Columbian languages persisted.
4. Government and Administration
Institutions were established in Spain and America to control the territories.
a) Spain:
- Casa de Contratación: Controlled trade and voyages to America.
- Royal Council of the Indies: Held political, military, and economic powers.
b) America:
- Territories were divided into viceroyalties (New Spain and Peru).
- Viceroyalties were subdivided into governorates or captaincies.
- Delegaciones de la Hacienda managed finances.
- Audiencias served as courts of justice.
5. Impact of America in Spain
The discovery of America had significant impacts on Spain:
- Politically: Increased prestige and power of the Spanish Crown.
- Economically: Silver and gold fueled foreign policy and construction.
- Culturally: Introduction of new products (cocoa, corn, tobacco) and cultural exchange.
A negative aspect was the emigration of Spaniards to America (100,000-200,000).