Hispano-Muslim Art and Architecture in Medieval Spain
The Mosque and the Palace in Hispano-Muslim Art
The prohibition of images in religious buildings led to a pronounced love of abstract decoration in Hispano-Muslim art. Sculpture and painting saw little development, with architecture becoming the primary artistic expression. Its main features include:
- Use of simple materials.
- Abundant decoration (horror vacui) without images: Employing vegetable elements, geometric patterns, and epigraphic inscriptions of Koranic texts.
- A greater focus on the interior than the exterior of the building.
Umayyad Art: The Mosque of Cordoba
Built on the Visigoth basilica of San Vicente, this mosque showcases the essential elements of a mosque:
- An outdoor courtyard bordered by arcades, with a source of ablution.
- A prayer hall with aisles divided by a roof.
- A qibla wall indicating the direction of prayer (towards Mecca, but oriented south in this case).
- The mihrab, a niche equivalent to the apse of Christian basilicas, located in the qibla wall.
- A space in front of the mihrab for the caliph.
- The minaret, a tower from which the call to prayer is made.
Population growth necessitated three successive expansions in the 9th and 10th centuries. Other important works from the Caliphate period include the Medina Azahara Palace, built by Abd ar-Rahman III near Cordoba, and the Mosque of Bab al-Mardún in Toledo.
The Taifas Arts (11th Century)
During the first Taifa period, the decorative tendency intensified, partly to conceal the simplicity of the materials used. Interlocking lobed arches and the mixtilinear arch became prominent. The most representative work of this period is the Palace of the Aljafería in Zaragoza.
Almoravid and Almohad Arts
These periods saw a reaction against the excessive decoration of the previous era. Primarily architectural works survive, particularly from the Almohad period in Seville, their capital: the Torre del Oro and the Giralda, the minaret of the mosque that once stood where the present cathedral is located.
Nasrid Art of Granada (14th and 15th Centuries): The Alhambra Palace
This masterpiece of the Nasrid period is the oldest and best-preserved Islamic palace. Simple structures are masked by rich and intricate decoration covering the ceilings and walls with plant motifs, geometric patterns, and epigraphic inscriptions. Stalactite vaults and plasterwork are prominent features. The Alhambra comprises two connected buildings: a formal section around the Court of the Myrtles and a private section around the Court of the Lions. Key features of Islamic palaces are evident:
- Greater emphasis on the interior than the exterior.
- Rooms arranged around courtyards.
- Juxtaposed units without a clear sense of spatial planning.
- Organic architecture that blends with nature, with fountains and vegetation surrounding or invading the buildings (creating oases of coolness).
These features are even more pronounced in the summer palace of the Generalife, located opposite the Alhambra.
The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: The Early Christian Resistance (8th-10th Centuries)
Only the northern mountainous areas of the peninsula, the Cantabrian Mountains and Pyrenees, remained free from Muslim rule. Here, the first centers of Christian resistance emerged: Asturias, Pamplona, Navarre, Aragon, and the Catalan counties. These were sparsely populated regions with primitive economies based on agriculture and livestock, and they were poorly Romanized. From the 8th to the 10th centuries, they primarily focused on resistance or made slow progress through sparsely populated areas. The initial period was marked by the pioneering role of the Kingdom of Asturias, culminating in the supremacy of the Kingdom of Pamplona.
The Astur-Leonese Kingdom
Visigoth nobles sought refuge in the north and organized the oldest center of resistance. The Battle of Covadonga in 722, led by Pelayo, marked a turning point: the defeat of the invaders, their decreased interest in the region, and the establishment of a no-man’s-land border along the Douro River between Christian and Muslim Spain. The Asturian monarchy expanded its domains (Galicia and the Basque Country), consolidated its power as the heir to the Visigoth tradition, and initiated the colonization of the Douro Valley due to population pressure. In the early 10th century, this kingdom became known as the Astur-Leonese Kingdom or simply the Kingdom of León. It encompassed Galicia, Asturias, and León, also bordering Portugal and Castile. Galicia and Castile would eventually gain autonomy, with Galicia having its own kings and Castile, under Fernán González, moving towards independence. This period of crisis coincided with a century of Christian expansion southward, coinciding with the Caliphate’s peak.
Christian Nuclei in the Pyrenees
Pamplona, Aragon, and the Catalan counties were caught between the influence of the Carolingian Empire to the north and the powerful Muslims in the Ebro Valley to the south.
Kingdom of Pamplona
The city of Pamplona revolted against the Emirate of Cordoba in 799 and came under Frankish influence. The Arista dynasty expelled the Franks. Under its first monarch, Sancho I (905-925), the conquest of La Rioja began, and Navarre soon joined through a double marriage alliance. The reign of Sancho III the Great (1000-1035) witnessed extraordinary growth for the Kingdom of Navarre, incorporating Castile, León, and parts of the Pyrenees (Sobrarbe and Ribagorza). Upon his death, he divided his kingdom among his three sons: Ferdinand I received Castile, Ramiro I received Aragon, and García received Navarre.
Kingdom of Aragon
With its capital in Jaca, Aragon was influenced by the Franks, Muslims, and Navarre.
Catalan Counties
The Catalan counties were organized under Frankish rule, with the Hispanic Marches being their collective name. The County of Barcelona held a dominant position and eventually subjugated the others. Under Count Borrell II (954-992), the counties achieved final independence from Frankish power.