historia
6.1 The Russian Revolution of 1917.The USSR.
-The crisis of the Tsarist Empire
At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia’s Empire extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea and from Poland to the Pacific Ocean. It was ruled by the Tsars of the Romanov dynasty and was in a state of confusion.
-Causes of the revolution(inside the Tsarist Regime ).
·Political dissatisfaction->due to an autocratic government of the tsars, which led to political opposition made up of liberal bourgeois parties and Marxist revolutionary parties, such as the Bolsheviks
·Economic and social dissatisfaction->due to the contrast between the rich minority and the extremely poor peasants and industrial proletariat.
-The revolution of 1915
The spark that set off this war was the general discontent and the defeat of Russia by Japan in the Russo-Japanese war. This war forced the Tsar to create a parliament or Duma, and implement certain reforms. However, the autocracy remained.
-The revolution of 1917
In 1917, The loss of the Russian army in the First World War and the mass suffering that was caused set off two revolutions:
·The February Revolution of 1917 (bourgeois) deposed Tsar Nicholas II and established a republic. The slowness of the liberal and bourgeois provisional government and their decision to remain in the world war led to the downfall of their promised reforms.
·The October Revolution of 1917 (Bolshevik) was organised by radical Marxists or Bolshevik. It overthrew the provisional government and placed their leader Lenin in power, who was supported by the soviets or council of workers, peasants and soldiers.
-In 1918, the Bolsheviks began to call themselves the Communist Party and took Russia out of the war by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany. They then drafted a Constitution, which transferred large estates to the peasants, gave workers control of factories and nationalised banks and transport. In 1919 they founded the Third International. Lenin’s actions were met with the opposition of armed counter-revolutionary groups, which formed what was known as the White Army: supported by the UK, France and Japan, battled the Bolshevik Red ARmy led by Leon Trotsky. The result was a bloody civil war (1918-1921), in which 8 million people lost their lives. The Red Army’s victory consolidated the revolution.
-The consequences of the revolution. The USSR
·Lenin’s government (1921-1924). Lenin held all the political power. In 1922, he created a political organisation called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), made up of Russia and other Asian Republics. It was organised as a federal state and adopted a New Economic Policy (NEP), which combined communist and capitalist policies. Thanks to this policy, the Soviet economy made a recovery.
·Stalin’s government (1927-1953). Lenin’s successor began a new era called ‘Stalinism’. A totalitarian political system was established, which used state violence to purge society of his opponents.
The economy became controlled by the state. Land was collectively owned and farmed by agricultural cooperatives or “kolkhozy”, or by salaried peasants on state-owned estates or “sovjoses”. Large industrial estates were built for metallurgical, chemical and arms production and the banking system and other services remained nationalised. Moreover, the state planned each area of production through five-year plans, which established objectives to be fulfilled in that time frame. Through all of these measures the USSR became a major economic and military power.
6.2 The economy (I). From prosperity to crisis.
-The Roaring Twenties
Between 1924-1929 the economy went through a period of prosperity known as the Roaring Twenties. The US experienced the greatest prosperity, becoming the world’s top economic power, based on three pillars:
·Industrial development: a new system of production on assembly lines, which allowed mass production.
·Increase in consumption: advertising and new easy purchase methods (instalment payments plans and bank loans)
·Stock market investments: became a quick way to get money for private individuals, companies and banks that invested by purchasing shares, causing share prices to continuously go up.
The prosperity of this period led people to trust the capitalist system, and led people to live carefree lives characterised by extravagant fashion, fancy popular music, wild dances and entertainment.
-The 1929 crisis. The Crash of 1929 at the New York Stock Exchange
Economic prosperity came to an end in 1929. In this year, the US experienced a severe economic crisis caused by excess production in relation to consumption.
During the First World War, the US agricultural industry and other major industries, had increased its production dramatically in order to supply their allies in the war. However, by the end of the war, demand in these countries decreased, which created an accumulation of stock in agricultural products and industrial goods that had not been sold. This caused prices to fall, and companies suffered major losses.
The real situation of many companies did not correspond to the high value their stock had in the market. In 1929, this situation created an atmosphere of distrust and the rise of share prices slowed.
-Black Thursday, October 24 1929. Many investors sold their stocks in an extremely fast pace due to a drop in prices. Some stocks had no buyers, causing the crash of Wall Street and a drop in prices. This drived many companies out of business and caused great fortunes to vanish.
6.3 The economy (II). The Great Depression
-The widespread impact of the crisis
The crash of the US stock market sparked a widespread depression. Millions of people lost their money and their savings. Countless banks went bankrupt as they had invested their funds in buying stock or granting credit to acquire shares. Many factories and farmers also went bankrupt due to the drop in sales and the lack of credit. Foreign trade was paralysed due to protective measures.
From 1930 to 1931, the crisis spread from the US to the rest of the world. It became a global crisis known as the Great Depression, it was one of the biggest economic crises in history.
-The consequences of the crisis
The crisis affected all aspects of life
·Economically: agricultural and industrial production dropped as demand fell. Foreign trade slowed as protectionism became more general. In turn, the capitalist system was strongly rejected by the middle call and workers.
·Population growth: population growth slowed considerably, as well as transoceanic migration, since recipient countries limited entries in order to reduce unemployment.
·Socially: unemployment and inequality increased. Pessimism and a lack of trust in progress.
·Politically: democracy was discredited by the depression, since it had proven unable to prevent it. New ideologies appeared such as totalitarianism among the middle class, and communism among the working class.
-Proposals for a solution
Each country tried to solve the crisis by its own formulas:
·Some promoted autarchy (economic self-sufficiency). Emphasising the use of domestic resources limiting imports as much as possible.
·The majority of countries adopted the ideas of the British economist John Maynard Keynes. He argued for state intervention in the economy to stimulate investments, employment and consumption. In the case of the US, in 1933 the new president Franklin D. Roosevelt enacted a series of economic and social programmes known as the New Deal, which included regulations for banks, forcing them to grant loans at low interest rates, subsidies for landowners and businesses to limit production, a reduction in the maximum number of weekly working hours, minimum wages, unemployment insurance, public works and more.
6.4 The rise of totalitarianism
-The crisis of democracy and the rise of totalitarianism
During the interwar period, the catastrophe of the First World War and the post-war difficulties helped breed a new thought against the democratic system, as the parliamentarianism had failed.
·Democracy was maintained in the US (presidential system) and in European countries (parliamentary system) with more liberal traditions, such as the UK and France.
·Other states in central and southern Europe adopted authoritarian regimes with one ruler, or totalitarian regimes with one party that had total control over society. Totalitarian regime had the social support of the middle class, who were unhappy about : the decrease in their standard of living caused by the crisis, big businesses that were eager to halt the rise of communism, many former soldiers and frustrated jobless citizens, and the most conservative sectors of society. Example of totalitarianism: Fascism, Italy and Nazism, Germany.
-Characteristics of totalitarianism
Totalitarian parties held full political power and control over every are of people’s lives. They implemented:
·Authoritarian political system. There was only one party which subdued any opposition violently, power was concentrated in the hands of the state, led by a charismatic leader who demanded blind obedience, no personal freedom or political pluralism. Ex: ‘Duce Mussolini’ in Italy, ‘Führer Hitler’ in Germany.
·Economic and social control. State directed the economy and declared itself anti-capitalist and anti-communist; controlled society through propaganda, censorship of the media and education.
·Rejection of equality. Considered members of the single party to be superior, men superior to women, certain races superior to others.
·Irrational thinking. Defended fanaticism and blind obedience, used symbols, emblems, songs and uniforms to unify their followers.
·Ultra-nationalism. Defended fanaticism and blind obedience, used symbols, emblems, songs and uniforms to unify their followers.
·Militarism. Defended a strong military and war as instruments of power, prestige and progress for their people.
6.5 Fascism and Nazism
-Fascism in Italy
The causes of the birth of Fascism was, the dissatisfaction with the peace agreements established after the FIrst World War, and the post-war situation: economic crisis, unemployment, inflation and social unrest expressed through revolutionary movements that frightened the most conservative sectors of society.
Fascism was created by the journalist Benito Mussolini. He founded the National Fascist Party in 1921 using paramilitary groups to quash the workers’ movement (Italian Combat Squad, Blackshirts). He gained support from large landowners, small bourgeoisie, the Church and King Victor Emmanuel III.
In 1922, the successful intervention of the Italian Combat Squad against the trade unions and workers’ strikes, allowed Mussolini to claim power. In order to pressure the government, he organised a March to Rome with the Blackshirts, and he was then named prime minister by the king.
Once in power, Mussolini established a Fascist dictatorship. While his dictatorship, he took complete control over the country, restricted freedoms, prohibited political parties, repressed trade unions and any other opposition using secret police (OVRA), directed the economy, and controlled every aspect of social life through propaganda and censorship.
-Nazism in Germany
The causes that led to Nazism in Germany were, the discontent during the Weimar Republic (1918-1933) with the humiliation of the Treaty of Versailles, as well as the post-war situation: economic crisis, unemployment and social unrest expressed through revolutionary movements.
Nazism was created by the ex-soldier Adolf HItler and the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, founded in 1920, which had a parliamentary group (Storm Troopers, or SA), and fought the communists.
Hitler won the support of a large part of the middle class, who had been devastated by the 1929 economic crisis, and by the capitalists who despised the communists.
In the elections of 1932, the Nazi-Party received 13.8 million votes, and HItler was named Chancellor of Germany. Once in power, he ended the Weimar Republic and founded the Third Reich, through which he established a fierce dictatorship, dissolved the other parties, prohibited trade unions and eliminated fundamental freedoms and rights.
He also took control of the economy, directed education, culture and art through propaganda and censorship, sought social cohesion through the idea of the superiority of the Aryan race and persecution of the Jews, adopted a military policy based on rearmament, and rejected the Treaty of Versailles and the territorial terms.
All these actions would eventually lead to the Second World War.
6.6 The Second World War (I). Causes
-Participants
On 1 September 1939, the Second World War began. It lasted almost six years, until 5 August 1945, and it is considered as the most important war in the history of humanity.
The warring countries formed two large groups:
·Allies: western powers, led by the UK and FRance
·Axis powers: led by Germany and Italy
During the war (1941), both sides gained allies, such as the Soviet Union, Japan and the US, which gave the war a global character.
-Causes of the conflict
·General causes
General causes: Germany’s quest for revenge, since they considered they had been humiliated by the Treaty of Versailles as they had to pay an indemnity to the Allies and reduce its army and naval fleet; the increase in totalitarian ideologies and the rise of militarism; nationalism, which was the source of territorial claims; and an economic depression and general impoverishment caused by the 1929 crisis.
·Immediate causes and the spark
Immediate causes: aggressive military policy by the totalitarian powers in the years leading up to the war.
Japan invaded Manchuria in 1932, Italy annexed Ethiopia and Albania in 1935 and 1939, and respectively, Germany annexed Austria and the Czech region of Sudetenland in 1938 and practically all of Czechoslovakia in 1939, on the pretext of incorporating territories with German populations into its empire. Neither the League of Nations nor the Western democracies, stepped in to contain these military aggressions, rather they granted concessions to the Axis powers in order to avoid conflict.
Spark: The spark that set off the war was Germany’s invasion of Poland without previous declaration of war after signing a non-aggression pact with the USSR. This act caused the UK and France to declare war against Germany.
6.7 The Second World War (II). Events and consequences
-The development of the conflict (1939-1945)
·Characteristics of the war
The war had an enormous reach as its operations took place in the Pacific, Europe and Africa, and involved six countries, affecting up to 90% of the human population. It was a long-lasting war of six years, because of the numerous German victories at the start of the war, which required the long and extensive recovery of lost territory.
It was also noteworthy for being the quintessential total war, forcing the economies of warring countries to be organised on the basis of the war, mobilising over 100 million soldiers and using powerful weapons (tanks, bombs, aviation, etc.). It also was an extremely merciless war. It is estimated that approx. 800 million civilians were occupied by enemies, and suffered bombing and other hardships. The war involved deportation, torture, murder and genocide.
·Stages and events
*The victories of the Axis powers (1939-1941). German tactics (blitzkrieg or lightning war) based on the use of tanks and planes together. These tactics along with Russia’s neutrality, enabled Germany to occupy practically all of WEstern Europe until 1940. Later, with the support of Italy, Germany forced France to sign an armistice, occupied part of the French territory, and forced the formation of the Vichy government, essentially a puppet state of Germany. It also sought to defeat the UK by heavy bombing, conquered territories in North Africa and the Balkans (1940), and invaded the USSR in 1941 in need of energy resources and food. This opened up a second front in Eastern Europe. On the other hand , Japan sought to extend its influence in the Pacific and in 1941, it destroyed the US Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbour (Hawaii). This attack brought the US into the war.
*The war evens out (1941-1943). During this period of the war, Germany was slowed by Britain in North Africa, and by Russia in in Stalingrad. Italy was invaded by the Allies and Japan was halted by the Us in the Pacific.
*The Allies turn the tide (1943-1945). During this period, the allies gained the advantage in the war after a double offensive in Europe. In the west, after the Normandy landings in 1944, the Allies freed Paris and entered Germany. In the east, the Red Army of the Soviets occupied several eastern European countries (1944), while partisan paramilitary units freed Yugoslavia and Albania from the Nazis. In April of 1945, Mussolini was captured and executed. Two days later, Hitler commited suicide in Berlin after the Russian army entered the city.
*In the Pacific, Japan pulled out of Burma, the Philippines and China after the battles of Iwo Jima and Guadalcanal. They finally surrendered after two atomic bombs were dropped on the cities of HIroshima and Nagasaki on 6 and 9 August 1945. This put a definitive end to the war.
-The consequences of the war
·Lives lost and material destroyed. As a consequence of the battles, roughly 50 to 60 million people lost their lives, the majority of whom were civilians, and 70 million people were wounded and mutilated. Furthermore, after the war, there were more than 40 million people forcibly displaced due to border modifications. The war also destroyed natural areas, cities, factories, and infrastructures such as bridges, ports, railways, etc.
·Political repercussions. European monarchies disappeared. Totalitarian regimes were defeated, and democracies were once again established. On an international and political level, a new world order was imposed, led by the US and the USSR, the two superpowers that emerged victorious from the war.
·Territorial changes. After the peace treaties, a new map of Europe had been drawn, and many countries either gained or lost territory.
6.8 Establishing peace. The UN
-Wartime conferences prior to the creation of the UN
Before the war ended, the Allies held a series of conferences to decide how to address the post-war situation of Germany and Eastern Europe.
·Tehran Conference. November 1943. It was agreed that the USSR would annex the Baltic States and eastern Poland.
·Yalta Conference. February 1945. Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Stalin, agreed that Europe would be politically rebuilt with democratic governments. They also redrew the boundaries of Poland and Germany, and divided the city of Berlin into four military zones: under US, British, French, and Soviet occupation.
·Potsdam Conference. July-August 1945. The Heads of Government agreed that all German annexations in Europe would be reverted, Germany would be demilitarised and divide as established at Yalta, war reparations would be paid, and Nazi war criminals would be punished. The trials for war crime committed by the Nazis were held in the German city of Nuremberg.
-Peace treaties
After the war in 1946, numerous peace treaties were signed, and Europe’s borders were redrawn.
Through the agreements, the USSR expanded its territory in the Baltic region and along the east coast of Poland, which was compensated at the expense of Germany by an extension of its western border to the Old RIver. Germany and Berlin were divided into occupations zones, established at Potsdam, Italy was occupied by an Anglo-American army and lost its colonies, Japan was occupied by the US, lost its
colonies and returned Manchuria to China, and Eastern Europe was occupied by millions of Russians soldiers.
-The creation of the UN
The allies also decided to create the United Nations, a new international organization that replaced the inefficient League of Nations.
It was founded on 26 June 1945 at the San Francisco Conference, and its charter was signed by 50 States. Its headquarters were set up in New York, and it established a General Assembly comprising all members, a Security Council made up of eleven members as well as other bodies. Its objectives were to maintain world peace and security through peaceful solutions to conflicts,
international cooperations, and respect for human rights and peoples’ rights to self-
determination.