History and Evolution of Psychology and Pathology
1. Psychological Psychology: From Philosophy to Science
Psychology as a science is relatively young, but the connection between mental events and health has always intrigued thinkers. Philosophers like Aristotle and medieval scholastics believed in a higher, immaterial being responsible for understanding and will, and an inferior, material being governing nerve functions and emotions. In the 17th century, Descartes proposed Cartesian dualism, separating mind and matter, which initially hindered psychology’s development.
2. Scientific Psychology: Key Stages
The evolution of scientific psychology can be divided into two main stages:
- Beginnings: Focused on psychophysics and psychophysiology, exploring the relationship between stimuli and sensory responses.
- Settlement: Marked by the emergence of psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and cognitive-behavioral psychology, delving into the unconscious and higher mental processes.
2.1. The Beginnings: Psychophysics and Psychophysiology
In the mid-19th century, psychology emerged as the study of the relationship between stimuli and basic psychological responses. Psychophysics investigated the link between external stimuli and the intensity of sensations, while psychophysiology explored the connection between internal stimuli and the strength of sensory perception.
2.2. The Settlement: Exploring the Unconscious and Beyond
From the 20th century onwards, psychology began to investigate the unconscious. Two prominent movements emerged:
- Psychoanalysis: Pioneered by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis explored the unconscious through dream interpretation, free association, and analysis of errors. Freud proposed three psychic instances: the super-ego (rules and duties), the id (impulses and instincts), and the ego (the mediator between the two). Psychoanalytic therapy aimed to uncover unconscious traumas and bring them to conscious awareness.
- Behaviorism and Cognitive-Behavioral Psychology: This approach encompassed Pavlov’s theory of conditioned reflexes and J. Watson’s behaviorism. Cognitive-behavioral psychology recognized three stages in psychological reactions: cognitive (interpretation of an event), emotional (the resulting emotion), and behavioral (the resulting behavior). Therapy focused on modifying cognitive responses to change emotions and behavior.
3. Modern Pathology: A Historical Overview
3.1. The Beginnings: Challenging Galen and Embracing Observation
Modern pathology arose from the re-examination of ancient texts and the adoption of new medical practices. The translation of original Greek medical works led to a shift away from medieval interpretations. The emphasis on observatio, or meticulous observation and data collection, replaced the reliance on doctrine alone. The practice of autopsies and bedside clinical teaching further contributed to the development of modern pathology.
3.2. Development of Modern Pathology: Early Attempts and Key Systems
3.2.a. Early Attempts at Change: Paracelsus and Alchemy
Paracelsus, a 15th-16th century physician, challenged traditional Galenic medicine and introduced an alchemical perspective. He proposed three fundamental substances: mercury, sulfur, and salt, and believed that ailments resulted from imbalances in these substances.
3.2.b. The Modern Pathological Systems
- Iatrofísica: Viewed the body as a complex machine of fibers and fluids, with diseases arising from disorders in these components.
- Iatrochemistry: Considered the body as a chemical laboratory, with diseases attributed to alterations in fermentations.
- Vitalism (Browinismo): Emphasized the vital principle of living beings and defined health as a balance between stimulation and excitability. Diseases were seen as imbalances in this relationship.
3.2.c. Clinical Pathology: Sydenham and Boerhaave
Sydenham, in the 17th century, introduced a detailed descriptive approach to diseases, focusing on distinguishing primary and secondary symptoms. Boerhaave, in the 18th century, continued this approach, incorporating clinical teaching and bedside observation.
4. Pharmacology Through the Ages
4.1. Ancient Pharmacology: Reliance on Nature
Ancient pharmacology relied on natural remedies, with limited knowledge and a belief in the healing power of nature. The allopathic technique, or healing by opposites, was commonly practiced.
4.2. Medieval Pharmacology: Expanding Knowledge and Resources
Medieval pharmacology saw the incorporation of African and Asian healing products. Knowledge was categorized into three levels: pharmacognosy (description of products), pharmacology (understanding of drug properties and mechanisms), and pharmacy (preparation of drugs).
4.3. Modern Pharmacology: Global Influences and the Rise of the Laboratory
Modern pharmacology benefited from the influx of goods from the East and West Indies. The introduction of mineral remedies and the growing importance of the laboratory marked significant advancements.
4.4. Scientific and Experimental Pharmacology: Breakthroughs and Innovations
The 19th and 20th centuries witnessed groundbreaking discoveries in pharmacology, including the identification of therapeutically active chemical constituents, the use of experimental animals, and the emergence of synthetic chemotherapy. This era marked a shift towards a more scientific and evidence-based approach to drug development and treatment.