History and Evolution of Special Education: From Segregation to Inclusion
History of Special Education
Early Pioneers and Shifting Paradigms
Pinel (1745), known for his treatise on insanity, and Esquirol (1782), who differentiated mental illness from mental retardation, laid the groundwork for understanding individuals with disabilities. Itard (1774) and Seguin (1812) pioneered educational approaches for individuals with disabilities, influencing figures like Binet and Simon, who developed intelligence testing, and Montessori and Decroly, who contributed to teaching methodologies and school organization.
The mid-20th century saw a shift from segregation to inclusion. The concept of normalization, advocating for equal rights and opportunities, gained traction with proponents like Mikkelsen and Nirje. Wolfensberger emphasized the importance of the social environment and the concept of social role valorization.
Integration and Legislation
The movement towards integration led to various approaches, including special and general education systems, specific legislation in countries like England and the USA, and integrated non-educational policies in Denmark, Norway, and Italy. Spain’s Act 70 and National Plan of EE 78 established frameworks for inclusive education, emphasizing standardization of services, school integration, individualization, and sectorization. The LISMI 82 law further promoted normalization and integration.
Special Educational Needs (SEN)
Defining and Understanding SEN
The term SEN encompasses the educational assistance required by individuals with learning difficulties. Brennan (1988) defined it as a deficiency affecting learning, while Marchesi and Martin (1992) highlighted the challenges faced by professionals in addressing these needs. SEN, as a broader term than “special education,” acknowledges the evolving nature of needs, emphasizes learning support, and promotes positive educational and social outcomes.
Supporting Students with SEN
Stainback & Stainback emphasized the importance of inclusive classroom philosophies, rules, and tailored support. Porras (1998) identified key elements for effective education, including collaboration, diverse learning approaches, and adequate resources. Jimenez Villa (1999) advocated for inclusion as a process involving planning, development, evaluation, and school strengthening.
Overcoming Barriers to Inclusion
The Equal Opportunities Rules (1993) aimed to address barriers such as hierarchical organization, rigid curricula, pull-out programs, lack of collaboration, funding issues, and controlling environments. The focus shifted towards individualized education plans and collaborative approaches.
Teaching Approaches and Learning Theories
Behavioral Approach
The behavioral approach, influenced by Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner, emphasizes observable behaviors, measurable objectives, and reinforcement techniques. It often involves structured programs, behavior modification strategies, and summative assessments.
Cognitive Approach
The cognitive approach, inspired by Ausubel, Bruner, and Piaget, focuses on mental processes, understanding how students learn, and promoting critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Teachers act as facilitators, encouraging student engagement and reflection.
Ecological Approach
The ecological approach, drawing on the work of Vygotsky, Bronfenbrenner, and Bandura, considers the interplay between individual learners and their environment. It emphasizes the role of context, culture, and social interactions in shaping learning experiences.
Specific Learning Difficulties
Dyslexia and Dysgraphia
Dyslexia is a reading disorder characterized by difficulties with word recognition, decoding, and spelling. Fdez Baroja (1978) distinguished between maturational and developmental dyslexia, while Ajuriaguerra (1979) described the characteristics of dysgraphia, a writing disorder.
Dyscalculia
Dyscalculia is a learning disability affecting math skills, including number sense, calculation, and problem-solving.
Curriculum Adaptations and Support Systems
Levels of Support
Support systems for students with SEN can be categorized into four levels: administration, educational equipment, individual professionals (e.g., psychologists), and specialized support services.
Constructivist Approach and Multiple Intelligences
Vygotsky’s constructivist theory emphasizes the role of social interaction and scaffolding in learning. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences recognizes diverse learning styles and strengths.
Types of Curriculum Adaptations
Curriculum adaptations can be non-significant, involving minor modifications, or significant, affecting core elements of the curriculum. Rodriguez (1992) proposed a bottom-up approach, starting with materials and strategies, while the MEC advocated for a top-down approach, beginning with goals and objectives.
Adapting Curriculum Components
Adaptations may involve redefining objectives, prioritizing content, modifying methodology, selecting appropriate materials, and adjusting assessment procedures. The use of technology and individualized instruction are crucial aspects of effective adaptations.
Conclusion
The field of special education has evolved significantly, moving from segregation to inclusion and embracing diverse learning needs. Understanding the history, theoretical foundations, and practical strategies for supporting students with SEN is essential for creating inclusive and effective learning environments.