History and Mythology of Ancient Rome: A Comprehensive Overview
Roman Republic
Expansion and Conflicts (Mid-3rd Century BC)
In the mid-3rd century BC, Rome exerted control over Italic populations and Greek colonies in southern Italy. The First Punic War resulted in Carthage losing control of key islands.
The Punic Wars
During the Second Punic War, Scipio faced Hannibal. After Hannibal’s conquest of Sagunto, Rome fought back. Hannibal returned to defend Carthage in the Battle of Zama, where Scipio defeated him. The Third Punic War ended with the conquest and destruction of Carthage, solidifying Roman rule across the western Mediterranean.
Crisis and Transition to Empire (2nd Century BC)
Rome’s acquisition of Greece and Asia Minor led to a republic in crisis. The First Triumvirate, formed by Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, eventually dissolved. Conflict between Caesar and Pompey resulted in Caesar’s victory and dictatorship, marking the end of the Republic.
Roman Empire
Rise of Octavian and the Second Triumvirate
After Caesar’s death, Octavian, Lepidus, and Mark Antony formed the Second Triumvirate. War broke out between Octavian and Mark Antony, with Octavian ultimately seizing power, ushering in the Roman Empire.
Imperial Expansion and Decline
The Empire, characterized by centralized power and diminished republican institutions, reached its peak under Trajan and Hadrian. Diocletian’s tetrarchy divided the empire into four parts. Constantine reunited the empire and established Constantinople as the capital. Theodosius later divided the empire between his sons, Arcadius and Honorius, marking the beginning of Rome’s decline.
Republican Constitution
Government Structure
The Senate, magistrates, and assemblies formed the core of the Roman Republic’s government. The 300-member Senate ratified assembly decisions, oversaw foreign policy, managed finances, and advised judges. Executive power resided with the magistrates, who held annual, unpaid, and accountable positions.
Assemblies
- Comitia Curiata: Primarily ceremonial, involved in military recruitment.
- Comitia Centuriata: Organized by census, elected consuls, censors, and priests.
- Comitia Tributa: Based on territorial districts, elected judges and had legislative functions.
Roman Oratory
The Art of Persuasion
Influenced by Hellenic traditions, Roman oratory emphasized eloquent speech composition. Judicial discourse followed a structure:
- Exordium: Introduction and context.
- Narratio: Narration of facts.
- Confirmatio: Presentation of supporting arguments.
- Refutatio: Rebuttal of opposing arguments.
- Peroratio: Concluding appeal to the judges.
Civil Law
Based on ancestral customs and the Law of the Twelve Tables, Roman civil law evolved with the expansion of the empire. Magistrates issued edicts, and lawyers interpreted laws and offered opinions, holding high social standing.
Roman Society
Social Hierarchy
- Patricians: The ruling class.
- Clients: Dependent on patricians for protection and resources.
- Plebeians: The commoners, initially with limited rights but gradually gained more.
- Freedmen: Former slaves who gained freedom through purchase or manumission.
- Slaves: Often prisoners of war, with no rights.
Emperor Caracalla later granted citizenship rights to all free inhabitants of the empire.
Roman Mythology
Narcissus and Echo
Narcissus, cursed by a terrible oracle, captivated Echo. Echo, unable to express her love, faded into a plaintive voice. Narcissus, enamored by his own reflection, fell into a spring and transformed into a flower bearing his name.
Apollo and Daphne
Apollo daphne could not satisfy. chased the god and she came to the river Peneus. the girl asked her father to become apolo to escape her father became a laurel tree. the tree became the symbol of god. Rome was born on the Palatine hill covers six peaks have nicknamed the city of seven hills. some walls and the capitol hill were its defenses. TRADA also was the Capitoline (jup.juno and mining.) was the forum had temples of Saturn and the public buildings such as the curia. Via Sacra. the comitium, the rostra and I miliarium aureum golden stone coated bronze medal.