History and Social Structures: A Summary
Prehistoric Era
Paleolithic
Nomadic humans lived in small groups, dominated by fire and creating rock art.
Neolithic
Agriculture emerged, leading to sedentary villages.
Metal Age
Copper, bronze, and iron were used for tools. The wheel and plow were invented, and megalithic architecture, like dolmens, appeared.
Ancient History
Urban Civilizations
Egypt and Mesopotamia developed centralized governments.
Classical Civilizations
Greece
Organized into independent city-states (polis). Athens saw the birth of democracy. Their economy was trade-based, and they contributed significantly to philosophy and art.
Rome
A vast empire with many conquests. Society was divided into patricians, plebeians, and slaves. They contributed to language and law.
Middle Ages (476-1492)
Byzantine Empire
The eastern part of the Roman Empire, with its capital in Constantinople, experienced great economic prosperity.
Western Roman Empire
Fragmented into barbarian kingdoms, including the Visigoths.
Islam
A thriving economy with a society divided between Muslims and non-Muslims. Power was centralized in the Caliph. Art featured geometric and vegetal elements, reflecting their monotheistic religion.
Christian Europe
Feudalism, a system of dependence relationships, emerged in Western Europe from the 10th century.
Modern Era (1492-1789)
Capitalism
Banking emerged, and society was divided into estates. The nobility’s power declined, replaced by the bourgeoisie. The peasantry moved away from dependency relationships.
Politics
Authoritarian monarchies arose, with the nobility subservient to the king.
Culture
Renaissance
Imitation of classical models (Greece and Rome) and humanism (man as the center of the universe) flourished.
Religion
Protestant Reformation
Challenged the authority of Catholic monarchs.
Key Terms
- Hominid
- The family of primate mammals to which humans belong.
- Vassalage
- A free person joining another of higher social status, swearing allegiance in exchange for protection and maintenance.
- Germanias
- Conflicts against King Charles I.
- Mercantilism
- The belief that a country’s wealth is measured in gold and silver.
Social Classes
Privileged: Nobility and high clergy.
Non-Privileged: Common people (peasants, artisans), servants, lower clergy.
Civilizations
Greek Civilization (3000-146 BC)
A centralized territorial organization.
Byzantine Empire
Emerged from the division of the Roman Empire, with Constantinople as its capital. Its greatest splendor was during the reign of Justinian the Great (6th century).
Geographical Discoveries
Causes
- Europeans sought new routes to Asia due to dangers posed by the Turks.
- The search for gold and precious metals.
- Technical advances.
- Adventurous spirit.
- Strong monarchies (Portugal and Castile).
Consequences
- Inflation due to the influx of gold and silver from the Americas.
- Introduction of new crops.
- Suffering of indigenous people due to contact with conquistadors.
- Ethnic and cultural mixing.
Old Regime
The set of institutions preceding the French Revolution (1789), based on a stratified society and absolute monarchy.
Economy
Agriculture
The main source of wealth. Most of the population was engaged in agriculture. The Netherlands, Germany, and England increased agricultural production through improved methods like crop rotation. Large-scale production dominated, leading to domestic industry and manufacturing. Domestic trade intensified due to river and land improvements. Foreign maritime and colonial trade grew, primarily controlled by British merchants.
Absolute Monarchy
Charles I’s attempt to rule without Parliament led to the English Civil War in 1642. Charles I was defeated and executed, and a republic was established in 1649. The monarchy was restored in 1660 with Charles II. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 resulted in William and Mary’s ascension to the throne and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.
Enlightenment
An intellectual movement spreading across Europe and America in the 18th century. It emphasized reason, faith in progress, and the right to happiness. It criticized the Old Regime and advocated for an egalitarian society, democracy, and challenged traditional religious beliefs.
Key Figures
Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau.
Enlightened Absolutism
A late 18th-century movement where monarchs adopted Enlightenment reforms while maintaining absolute power. Reforms included a centralized state, the abolition of serfdom, and the promotion of education.
Representatives
Charles III of Spain and Catherine the Great of Russia.
Dynastic Changes
The death of Charles II without an heir led to the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713) between Philip of Anjou (grandson of Louis XIV) and Archduke Charles. The war ended with the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, recognizing Philip V as king. Great Britain gained Gibraltar, Menorca, and American colonies. Austria received the Spanish Netherlands and Spanish territories in Italy.
Politics and Administration under Philip V
The Nueva Planta decrees suppressed the laws and liberties of the Crown of Aragon. Secretaries of state were created, and the territory was divided into intendancies. The General Courts of the kingdom were established.
Relations with the Church
An agreement with the Holy See in 1753 recognized the Spanish monarch’s right to nominate bishops. The Jesuits were expelled for opposing reforms, and the Inquisition’s power was limited.
Economy
Irrigation works were carried out, and depopulated areas were repopulated. The privileges of the Mesta were abolished. Internal customs were abolished, and domestic industry was protected. Royal factories were created. Land records were established.
Culture
Academies were created, and education and sports were promoted.
Esquilache Riots
A revolt during the reign of Charles III, sparked by attempts to change clothing regulations. It led to food shortages and economic hardship.
Branches of Government
Legislative: Creates laws (Congress and Senate).
Executive: Makes political decisions (President and Ministers, Government).
Judicial: Enforces laws (Magistrates and Judges).