History of Labor Movements: Luddites to the Second International
The Luddites
In the early days of industrialization, anti-association laws meant that employee revolts were spontaneous. These first forms of worker resistance were called Luddites, and their main manifestation was destroying or burning machines or factory workshops. Fighting the machines was a way to defend the workplace and intimidate employers during labor conflicts. In Britain, there were four waves of Luddite activity between 1811 and 1816, and the movement later spread throughout Europe. The Luddite movement had a relatively short life, as early labor leaders understood that their enemies were not the machines but the businessmen.
The Chartists
Chartism originated from the repressive response to the movement promoted by the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union and the disappointment stemming from political reform that excluded workers from voting. Employers’ refusal to hire union members led workers to conclude that changing laws and labor relations was necessary, requiring urgent worker intervention in politics. A group of workers created the London Working Men’s Association, which published the People’s Charter. The Charter demanded universal male suffrage, the secret ballot, equal electoral districts, an end to property qualifications for members of Parliament, salaries for MPs, parliamentary immunity, and other measures to democratize British society. While the Chartists didn’t achieve all their goals, they obtained partial successes and raised political awareness among many workers.
Marxism
a) Historical Materialism: The engine of history, according to Marx, is class struggle—a constant conflict between oppressed and oppressor classes. Human history is a succession of stages with different production systems. Marx viewed capitalism as a phase to be overcome to reach a new mode of production—socialism—free from inequalities.
b) Critique of Capitalism: Marx’s economic analysis of capitalism identifies surplus value as the key element of exploitation.
c) The Communist Society: Marx argued that the proletariat must seize political and economic power through revolution and create a worker’s state, which would be an intermediate stage before achieving a communist society.
Anarchism
Anarchism is based on the absence of authority:
a) Critique of Private Property: Anarchists advocate for collective ownership of the means of production by the community or worker cooperatives.
b) Opposition to the State: They oppose the existence of the state and political action. The first act of revolution, they believe, must be the violent destruction of the state. They oppose political parties, participation in parliamentary processes, and advocate for abstention from elections.
c) Direct Action and Individualism: Anarchists reject hierarchical organizations and organize into autonomous groups. They believe the revolution should be a spontaneous uprising of the people, not directed by any party.
The First International
Marx drafted the statutes of the First International, based on two principles:
a) Worker Emancipation: The emancipation of the working class must be the work of the workers themselves.
b) Political Power: The conquest of political power is the primary goal of the working class to free themselves from oppression.
Key agreements of the First International included the eight-hour workday, the abolition of child labor, improved working conditions for women, opposition to standing armies, and resistance to direct taxation. The confrontation between Marx and Bakunin led to significant internal conflict. The Franco-Prussian War further weakened the organization, as it advocated for workers on both sides to refuse to fight. The First International was eventually outlawed and accused of instigating the Paris Commune, leading to the expulsion of the Bakuninists.
The Second International
The Second International exclusively included socialist worker parties. It had a greater impact, addressing international political issues. It adopted “The Internationale” as the anthem of the labor movement and established May Day as a day of worker struggle. Major debates included:
a) Collaboration with Bourgeois Parties: This debate resulted in the condemnation of revisionism and participation in bourgeois governments.
b) Colonialism and Imperialism: The Second International advocated for racial equality and mandated that all socialist parties fight colonial exploitation.
c) World War I: The International condemned the war, but most member parties supported their national governments. The outbreak of the Russian Revolution and the rise of Leninism led to a split between communist and social democratic movements, ultimately resulting in the formation of the Comintern and the decline of the Second International.