History of Philosophy: From Presocratics to Plato
Introduction to the History of Philosophy
The Presocratics (Phisicoi)
The Presocratics, including Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Pythagoras, Heraclitus, and Parmenides, emerged in the 6th and 7th centuries BC. Thales, born in Miletus, a colony in Asia Minor, is considered the founder of philosophy, marking the transition from myth to logos. He famously predicted a solar eclipse using Egyptian astronomical tables.
Thales believed that “the ocean is full of gods,” and that everything originated from water. He established a school that included Anaximander and Anaximenes, who studied physis (nature). These thinkers are known as phisicoi, or Presocratics.
Pythagoras focused on numbers and their classification, believing that everything could be summarized numerically. He also explored the concept of the soul’s transmigration.
Parmenides posited that “the One” is perfect, motionless, and eternal.
Heraclitus emphasized dialectics, asserting that being is achieved through the struggle of opposites: “For being is equal to becoming.”
Aristotle considered Thales the first of the phisicoi.
Acousmatic/arithmetic: magister dixi (the teacher said).
Parmenides proposed two paths: the path of truth (aletheia) and the path of mortals (doxa), exploring metaphysics. After Parmenides and Heraclitus, philosophy became a fundamental science, initiating a new epoch. The metaphor of being well-rounded represents an area without gaps of non-being.
Hegel adopted Heraclitus’s ideas and philosophy.
Plato spoke of wisdom.
The Sophists emphasized dialectics and oratory.
Zeno of Elea created paradoxes.
The 5th Century BC and the Rise of the Sophists
In the 5th century BC, the Athenians defeated the Persians. The rise of democracy in Athens influenced philosophy, making it beneficial for politicians.
Sophists used fallacies and arguments that appeared legitimate but were not.
Hegel/Marx: dialectical method leading to dialectical materialism.
Being single can be captured by the Nous (intelligence). Doxa is knowledge derived from the senses.
Philosophers of this time were concerned with issues such as law, psychology, logic, and politics. Metaphysical inquiries served as a foundation for these topics.
Notable Sophists include Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias, Prodicus, Cratylus, and Entidemo.
Skepticism: Doubting everything, believing that one cannot know the full truth.
Relativism: The belief that absolute truth is unattainable.
Nomos (arbitrariness) = Conventionalism: Laws may differ in each location worldwide.
Socrates
The Sophists differed from Socrates in their approach:
- Dialogue/Irony
- Intellectualism Moral
- Maieutics-Induction
- Arete
Sophists embraced moral relativism, skepticism, and focused on language (sophistry) and nomos (not from physis).
Protagoras: “Man is the measure of all things.”
Socrates: Employed maieutics, using irony and dialogue to elicit knowledge from others without imposing his own views. He believed that the well-known is desirable, aiming for universal moral definitions to solve problems and overcome relativism.
Plato
Plato, born in 427 BC, was the son of Ariston and Perictyone. Initially destined to be a ruler of Athens, he was educated in the traditions of Pericles. However, he grew disillusioned with democracy, especially after his negative experience with Socrates. He decided to dedicate himself to politics.
In his dialogue The Republic, Plato envisioned the perfect society, attempting to implement a utopia—the design of an ideal city. This republic was intended for happy people, not necessarily Athenians. His books often contained self-criticism. Plato appointed Aristotle as the head of his academy.