History of Spain: A Comprehensive Overview
Spain, also known as the Kingdom of Spain, is a sovereign member of the European Union. It is a social and democratic state governed by law, with a constitutional monarchy as its form of government. The country’s capital is Madrid, and it occupies most of the Iberian Peninsula. Spain also includes the Balearic Islands (in the western Mediterranean Sea) and the Canary Islands (in the eastern Atlantic Ocean). In North Africa, Spain holds sovereignty over the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla, as well as the districts and possessions under the Chafarinas Islands, the Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, and the Peñón de Alhucemas. The municipality of Llívia, entirely surrounded by French territory in the Pyrenees, completes the territories along with the island of Alborán, the Columbretes Islands, and other small islands and islets off the coast. Spain covers an area of 504,645 km², making it the fourth-largest country in Europe after Russia, Ukraine, and France.
With an average altitude of 650 meters above sea level, Spain is the fifth most mountainous country in Europe, after Switzerland, Austria, Andorra, and Liechtenstein. Its population, according to the 2010 municipal census, is 46,951,532 inhabitants. According to the Spanish Constitution, Castilian or Spanish is the official state language. In 2006, it was the mother tongue of 89% of Spaniards. Other languages are recognized as co-official in various regions, according to their statutes of autonomy. The Constitution recognizes the linguistic modalities of Spain as part of its cultural heritage, deserving special respect and protection.
Mainland Spain shares land borders with France and Andorra to the north, Portugal to the west, and the British territory of Gibraltar to the south. In its African territories, it shares land and sea borders with Morocco. Spain and France share sovereignty over the Pheasant Island at the mouth of the Bidasoa River and five Pyrenean facerias.
The Roman Era
Between the First and Second Punic Wars, the Carthaginians invaded the Iberian Peninsula. Their most important colonies were established on the island of Ibiza and in Cartagena (named after the original Carthage). They also controlled other cities like Cádiz and Málaga. After the defeat of Carthage, Rome began a gradual occupation of the peninsula, lasting over 200 years. Early in the occupation, the Romans faced the long siege of Numantia, a Celtiberian city located near present-day Soria, which lasted for almost 30 years. They also contended with the Lusitanian leader Viriathus, who waged a guerrilla war against them. After Viriathus’s death in 139 BC, resistance against Rome became more fragmented, finally ending with the subjugation of Cantabria and Asturias during the reign of Emperor Augustus.
The Roman occupation culminated in the peninsula becoming a province under the name of Hispania. The name likely derives from a Punic word meaning “land of rabbits.” The people of Hispania adopted Roman culture, language, and laws, and the region became important within the empire. Three Roman emperors—Trajan, Hadrian, and Theodosius—were born in Hispania, as were the philosopher Seneca and other prominent figures.
Visigothic and Muslim Periods
In 409, Suebi, Alans, and Vandals invaded the Iberian Peninsula. A few years later, in 416, the Visigoths entered Hispania as allies of Rome, expelling the Alans and Vandals and confining the Suebi to Gallaecia. The Visigothic monarchy brought the first real concept of Hispania/Spain as a unified country. They achieved territorial unity after defeating the Suebi, Basques, and Byzantines. Religious unity came with the reconciliation of Catholics and Arians. The Visigothic monarchy established Toledo as the capital, centralizing both political and religious power. However, the elective nature of the monarchy led to political instability, marked by frequent rebellions and assassinations.
In 689, Arabs arrived in northwestern Africa. Following their victory over the Visigoths at the Battle of Guadalete in 711, the Muslim invasion of the Iberian Peninsula began. Al-Andalus, with its capital in Córdoba, became an emirate of the Arab empire. The Muslim advance was rapid, with Toledo falling in 712. By 716, they controlled the entire peninsula, though their control in the north was more nominal than military. Visigothic resistance continued for a few more years in Septimania until 719, after which they focused their efforts north of the Pyrenees against the Carolingian kingdom. This allowed for minor uprisings in the northeast of the peninsula.