History of Spain: From Pre-Roman Times to the 18th Century
1. Pre-Roman Peoples
Several indigenous societies inhabited the Iberian Peninsula before the Roman conquest began in the 3rd century BC. Two main cultural groups existed: the Iberian and the Celtic.
Iberian Peoples
Located on the Mediterranean coast and south, they were influenced by Phoenician, Greek, and Carthaginian cultures. Their economy was based on agriculture, mining, metallurgy, crafts, and trade. They also developed their own writing system.
Celtic Peoples
Located in the Plateau and the north, they had a lower level of development compared to the Iberians.
2. Basques
Indigenous non-Indo-European people living around the western Pyrenees before the arrival of the Romans (3rd century BC).
Mountain Basques
According to Roman sources, they practiced a subsistence economy based on nomadic animal husbandry and lived in isolation. Consequently, their Romanization was weak, and they managed to maintain their own language.
Plain Basques
They practiced agriculture and lived in villages, collaborating with Rome against other indigenous peoples.
3. Roman Provinces
Administrative divisions of the territory conquered by Rome. Each province was headed by a governor who oversaw officials in charge of administrative, judicial, military, and prosecutorial matters.
Peaceful and Romanized provinces were under the control of the Senate, while border or conflict-ridden provinces were under the Emperor’s control.
In the 2nd century BC, two provinces were created: Citerior and Ulterior. By the 4th century, there were six: Tarragona, Carthaginian, Andalusia, Lusitania, Galicia, and the Balearics.
4. Andelos
Ancient Roman city located near Mendigorría, reaching its peak in the 2nd century. Its remains reveal an urban structure with grid-like streets, houses with mosaic floors, and a hydraulic complex consisting of a dam, a storage controller, an aqueduct, and a distribution warehouse that supplied the city with water.
5. Romanization
Historical process experienced by the peoples conquered by Rome from the 3rd century BC to the 5th century AD. These groups assimilated Roman culture, including Latin, law, institutions, customs, and religious beliefs like Christianity.
Factors favoring Romanization included the integration of indigenous leaders into the administration, the presence of Latino settlers, urban planning, and the granting of Roman citizenship.
6. Visigoth Monarchy
Political regime established by the Visigoths between 507 and 711 AD. After the fall of the Roman Empire, they dominated the Iberian Peninsula and established their capital in Toledo.
The king was chosen from the warrior aristocracy and ruled with the support of the Aula Regia and the Councils of Toledo.
The Visigoths achieved territorial, legal, and religious unification of the peninsula, but inheritance conflicts facilitated the Muslim invasion.
7. Mozarabic
Christian religious minority living in Muslim territory (Al-Andalus) from 711 AD. They maintained their traditions, laws, religion, and properties.
They paid an annual tribute, helped with defense, lived in separate quarters, and were denied access to public office.
Conversions to Islam and migration to Christian territory reduced their numbers. The Almohads decreed their expulsion at the beginning of the 13th century.
8. Caliphate of Cordoba
Political regime established in Al-Andalus by Abd al-Rahman III in 929 AD. As emir, he severed ties with Baghdad and proclaimed himself caliph, assuming political, legal, military, and religious power.
It was the most brilliant period of Al-Andalus, politically, militarily, culturally, and artistically. It lasted until 1031 when it fragmented into Taifa kingdoms after civil strife between Umayyad caliph supporters and Mansur’s descendants.
9. Taifa Kingdoms
Independent political entities formed after the Caliphate of Cordoba’s dissolution (1031). Taifas were distinguished by their dominant ethnic groups: Arabs, Berbers, and Slavs.
They possessed greater wealth but less military power than the Christian kingdoms, paying tributes (parias) for protection. The Almoravids and Almohads temporarily reunited them. By 1248, only the Kingdom of Granada remained independent.
10. Reconquista
Historical process (8th-15th centuries) where Christian centers in the northern peninsula conquered and resettled Muslim lands of Al-Andalus, leading to the formation of the kingdoms of Castile, Navarre, Aragon, and Portugal.
It developed in stages with periods of peaceful coexistence, confrontation, submission, progress, and setbacks. It concluded in 1492 with the conquest of the Kingdom of Granada by the Catholic Monarchs.
11. Kingdom of Pamplona
Christian political entity emerged in the mid-9th century in the western Pyrenees when local aristocracy led by Iñigo Arista expelled the Franks.
In 905, Sancho I achieved independence from the Muslims and expanded the territory to La Rioja and Aragon. Its maximum expansion and political influence occurred under Sancho III the Great in the early 11th century. In the 12th century, it was renamed the Kingdom of Navarre.
12. Navas de Tolosa
Battle in 1212 near Despeñaperros. A coalition of Christian kingdoms (Castile, Navarre, Aragon) with French and Portuguese troops defeated the Almohads who ruled Al-Andalus since 1147.
The victory weakened Almohad power, further fragmented Muslim domains into Taifa kingdoms, and boosted the Reconquista in the 13th century.
13. Medieval Courts
Political institutions in Christian kingdoms (12th-13th centuries). They consisted of three estates (nobility, clergy, urban bourgeoisie) summoned by the king.
Duties included addressing complaints and granting special subsidies (“donations”). In Castile, they had a consultative role, while in Aragon and Navarre, they had legislative capacity.
14. Union of Castile and Aragon
Historical events during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella (1479-1504). The marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469 and their subsequent ascensions to their respective thrones led to the Hispanic Monarchy.
Each kingdom retained its laws, institutions, customs, and borders. Although a personal or dynastic union, the monarchs acted jointly in governing their dominions.
15. Incorporation of Navarra into the Crown of Castile
In 1515, at the Cortes of Burgos, Navarra was annexed to Castile, preserving its privileges and institutions. Three years earlier, Ferdinand had ordered Castilian troops to invade Navarra.
This occurred during a conflict between Spain and France for European hegemony and with the support of a Navarrese noble faction: the Beamontese.
16. Expulsion of the Jews
In 1492, the Catholic Monarchs approved the Edict of Expulsion proposed by the Grand Inquisitor Torquemada. Jews had historically suffered persecution and were confined to separate quarters (communities).
Reasons for expulsion included defending Catholicism and religious unity. Those who didn’t accept baptism (approximately 100,000) were expelled from Castile and Aragon under threat of death.
17. Territorial Heritage of Charles I
Territories inherited by Charles I, the first Habsburg king (1517-1556). From his paternal grandparents, Maximilian of Austria and Mary of Burgundy, he received Austria, the title of Holy Roman Emperor, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Franche-Comté.
From his maternal grandparents, Ferdinand and Isabella, he inherited the Crown of Aragon (including Sardinia, Sicily, and Naples), the Crown of Castile (including Navarre, Canary Islands, North African cities), and the newly discovered American territories.
18. House of Trade
Colonial institution founded in 1503 by the Catholic Monarchs. It monitored the movement of people and goods between Castile and the American colonies, ensuring effective tax collection (one-fifth of all goods from the Indies, the “royal fifth”).
Initially headquartered in Seville, it operated until 1790 when colonial trade was liberalized.
19. Validos
Political figures close to the monarch, acting as intermediaries between the king and government institutions. They assumed government functions with the king’s approval.
They controlled power and had loyal clientele who received positions and privileges in return. During the 17th century, prominent validos included the Duke of Lerma (Philip III), the Count-Duke of Olivares (Philip IV), and Don John of Austria (Charles II).
20. Expulsion of the Moriscos
Between 1609 and 1614, during Philip III’s reign, the Moriscos (supposedly Christianized Muslims) were expelled. They hadn’t integrated into Christian society and retained their language, culture, and religion.
Fear of collaboration with the Turks and Barbary pirates triggered the expulsion of about 300,000, with severe economic and demographic consequences for Levante and Aragon.
21. War of Spanish Succession
Dynastic conflict (1702-1713) after Charles II’s death without direct heirs. Philip V’s enthronement was opposed by Britain, Holland, Austria, and the Crown of Aragon, who supported Archduke Charles of Austria.
Philip V, backed by France and Castile, was recognized as king after renouncing claims to the French throne and Spanish possessions in Europe.
22. Decrees of New Plant
Laws enacted by Philip V (1707-1716) abolishing privileges and institutions of the Crown of Aragon, whose functions were assumed by Castile. They established a centralized administration based on captaincies general, courts, magistrates, and mayors.
This was a response to the Crown of Aragon’s support for Archduke Charles during the War of Succession.
23. Mercantilism
Economic doctrine prevalent in Europe (16th-18th centuries). Precious metals were considered essential wealth, advocating for protectionist trade policies.
Internally, it supported removing trade barriers, enhancing manufacturing, and improving transport. The State played a prominent role in trade.
24. Enlightened Despotism
Government form practiced by some 18th-century European monarchies. Kings, without relinquishing absolute power, implemented “enlightened” reforms.
In Spain, Charles III (1759-1788) promoted economic reforms, improved education, and defended the monarch’s power against the Church.
25. Economic Societies of Friends of the Country
Private institutions promoted by intellectuals in various provinces during the late 18th century. They studied the economic situation of each region and promoted agriculture, commerce, industry, public education, and the translation and publication of foreign books.
They comprised nobility, clergy, and middle-class members and had the Crown’s support.