History of Spain: From Roman Hispania to the Catholic Monarchs
1. The Roots: Roman Hispania
1.1 Hominization in the Iberian Peninsula
The humanization process in the Iberian Peninsula reflects the expansion of hominids from Africa to Asia and Europe. The Sierra de Atapuerca findings are significant, revealing the oldest remains in Western Europe. These include Homo antecessor (circa 800,000 years old) and Homo heidelbergensis (350,000 years old). Later stages include Homo sapiens neanderthalensis (100,000 years old) and Homo sapiens sapiens (40,000 years old), creator of Altamira’s cave art.
1.2 Colonization: Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians
Around the first millennium BC, Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians arrived, drawn by mineral wealth. They established coastal factories (Gades, Ampurias, Carthage) and introduced new crops, pottery, coinage, urban life, iron metallurgy, and writing. This contact fostered the emergence of the Tartessian culture, evidenced by the Carambolo and La Aliseda treasures. Simultaneously, Indo-European migrations introduced iron metallurgy and contributed to the development of pre-Roman Celtic cultures.
1.3 Pre-Roman Peoples
Pre-Roman peoples, influenced by external forces, can be grouped into two cultural areas:
- Iberian Peoples: (Turdetani, Edetani, Laietani, Ilergets) occupied the southern and eastern coasts. Influenced by Punic and Greek colonization, they were economically and culturally advanced, evidenced by Iberian art like the Lady of Elche and the Lady of Baza.
- Celts: (Carpetani, Vettones, Galicians) inhabited the central, northern, and eastern peninsula. Their economy was based on grain and livestock, and they lacked writing. “The Bulls of Guisando” contrast with Iberian art. Northern peoples (Galicians, Asturians, Cantabrians, and Vascones) were also present.
All these peoples were eventually subjected to Roman rule.
1.4 Romanization and its Legacy
Roman conquest began in the late 3rd century BC. Hispania became a Roman province and underwent intense Romanization, leaving a lasting impact. The name “Spain” derives from Hispania, and Iberian languages evolved from Latin. Roman law influenced the legal system, and Christianity spread throughout the peninsula. Roman art is evident in monumental works like the Segovia Aqueduct and Mérida Theater. Rome exploited Hispania’s resources, introducing new agricultural techniques and crops. The Roman economy was urban and monetary, leading to the founding of major cities (Zaragoza, Mérida, Tarragona, León) connected by a road network. Hispania’s importance is reflected in the emperors and intellectuals it produced (Trajan, Hadrian, Theodosius, Seneca, Martial, Quintilian).
1.5 The Visigothic Monarchy
Following the fall of Rome in the 5th century, the Visigoths established an independent kingdom in Hispania. The Visigothic state was an elective monarchy, often becoming hereditary, leading to succession disputes. The king ruled with the Aula Regia (nobles and clergy) and the Council of Toledo (bishops). The Church, influential through religion and Roman culture, played a key role in the Visigothic state.
2. The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Al-Andalus
2.1 The Muslim Conquest
In 711, Tariq’s Arab-Berber army crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, defeating the Visigoths at the Battle of Guadalete. The rapid conquest was facilitated by the Visigothic monarchy’s weakness and the surrender of Visigothic nobles. Muslim expansion was halted at the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian Mountains, where resistance from Cantabria, Asturias, and the Basques was strong.
2.2 The Emirate and Caliphate of Cordoba
Al-Andalus initially became an emirate dependent on Damascus. In the mid-8th century, Abd al-Rahman I proclaimed an independent emirate, later becoming the Caliphate of Cordoba under Abd al-Rahman III in the early 10th century. This marked Al-Andalus’s most brilliant period.
2.3 The Taifa Kingdoms
In the 11th century, internal tensions between Muslim ethnic groups led to the fragmentation of the Caliphate into Taifa kingdoms. Christian kingdoms exploited this weakness to advance their Reconquista. The Almoravids and Almohads temporarily reunited Al-Andalus, but Christian pressure ultimately left only the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada.
2.4 Economic and Social Organization of Al-Andalus
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3. The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Early Christian Resistance
3.1 Formation of Christian Kingdoms
Christian kingdoms emerged from resistance in the Cantabrian Mountains and Pyrenees. The Kingdom of Asturias, founded by Alfonso I, expanded into the Astur-Leonese kingdom. The County of Castile, under Fernán González, gained independence and became a kingdom. The Pyrenees saw the formation of the Kingdom of Pamplona (Navarre), the Kingdom of Aragon, and the County of Barcelona, which later became Catalonia. The Kingdom of Portugal emerged from the Leonese kingdom.
3.2 Main Stages of the Reconquista
The Reconquista’s progress was influenced by geography. Christian kingdoms initially formed in the northern mountains. The Astur-Leonese kingdom expanded south. The fall of the Caliphate facilitated Christian advances, with Castile reaching the Tagus. Aragon and Catalonia expanded south of the Ebro. Castile faced internal conflicts and North African invasions, while Portugal gained independence. In the 13th century, Castile conquered Andalusia, while the Catalan-Aragonese took Valencia and Mallorca. The Reconquista concluded with the conquest of Granada in 1492.
3.3 Repopulation and Social Organization
Repopulation involved land distribution, shaping agricultural property structures. Different models were employed:
- Presura: Small-scale individual settlement by free peasants.
- Concejo: Repopulation based on councils or municipalities with privileges.
- Military Orders and Nobility: Land division into estates.
In the eastern realms, Muslims (Mudejars) remained under capitulations. The Reconquista delayed feudalization, but the nobility and clergy eventually extended the feudal system. Society was divided into nobility, clergy, and commoners. Urban development led to the emergence of a non-feudal bourgeoisie.
3.4 A Plural Culture
The coexistence of Christians, Muslims, and Jews resulted in cultural exchange. Mozarabic art blended Visigothic and Arabic elements, while Mudejar art combined elements of both cultures in conquered territories. Schools of translators in Toledo fostered intellectual exchange between the three groups.
4. The Crisis of the 14th and 15th Centuries
4.1 Political Organization in Castile
The peninsular kingdoms operated under feudal monarchies, with the king’s power limited by feudal powers. Castile’s monarchy was less feudal than Aragon’s. The Cortes, representing nobility, clergy, and bourgeoisie, had an advisory and fiscal role. Municipalities enjoyed autonomy under charters, but Castile introduced the corregidor (royal representative).
4.2 Political Organization in Aragon
The Crown of Aragon comprised Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia, each with its own laws and institutions. Feudal powers limited royal authority more effectively than in Castile. Each kingdom had its own Cortes with greater power than in Castile. The Generalitat or Diputación del General monitored parliamentary decisions. Municipalities, especially Barcelona’s Council of One Hundred, were stronger than in Castile.
4.3 Demographic, Economic, and Political Crisis
The 14th century saw widespread crisis marked by famine, plague, and depopulation. Feudal lords demanded more concessions, leading to peasant uprisings. Castile’s economy shifted towards livestock and wool export, benefiting large flock owners and the Crown. Aragon, particularly Catalonia, suffered from the collapse of Mediterranean trade. Political struggles between the monarchy and nobility intensified, leading to civil wars in both Castile and Aragon.
4.4 Aragon’s Mediterranean Expansion
Aragon’s economy was largely agrarian and feudal. Catalonia had a more balanced economy with growing cities, crafts, and trade. Catalan merchants established trading colonies in the Byzantine Empire and North Africa, with Barcelona as a major port. The 14th-century crisis and Turkish advances impacted Catalan trade and Aragon’s Mediterranean influence.
5. The Catholic Monarchs: Building the Modern State
5.1 Dynastic Union and the Modern State
The reign of Ferdinand and Isabella laid the foundation for the modern state through territorial unification (marriage, conquest of Granada and Navarre) and the establishment of an authoritarian monarchy. The union of Castile and Aragon was dynastic, not institutional, with each kingdom retaining its laws and customs. Castile’s greater economic potential, especially after the discovery of America, led to its dominance within the new state.
5.2 Conquest of Granada
The conquest of Granada, framed as a crusade, lasted ten years. The newly created royal army, the tercios, gained experience for future campaigns. Granada’s capitulation in 1492 incorporated it into Castile. Initial tolerance for Muslims ended with the 1502 decree requiring conversion or expulsion.
5.3 State Organization
Key government institutions included:
- Royal Councils: Specialized councils for different areas (Indies, Aragon) and functions (Treasury, Inquisition). The Council of Castile was paramount.
- Royal Courts: Strengthened at the expense of palatial courts.
- Corregidores: Royal representatives in municipalities.
- Standing Army (Tercios): Became a powerful military force.
- Santa Hermandad: Maintained order in rural areas.
- Treasury Board: Improved revenue collection.
5.4 Foreign Policy
Foreign policy focused on confronting France and Islam in North Africa. Ferdinand secured alliances with Germany, Portugal, and England through marriage alliances. Military victories in Italy incorporated Naples into Aragon. Strongholds were taken in North Africa. Isabella focused on the Atlantic, financing Columbus’s voyage.
5.5 The Discovery of America
Columbus’s voyages laid the foundation for the Spanish American Empire. By 1511, the West Indies were under Spanish control. Disagreements arose over the spoils of discovery. The New World’s economic potential, initially underestimated, soon became apparent. The discovery’s significance extended beyond Spain, becoming a universally important historical event.