History of the Soviet Union: From Lenin to Gorbachev
The Time of Lenin (1917-1924)
Upon coming to power, Lenin approved the following decrees:
- Signature of immediate peace with the Triple Alliance (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk)
- Expropriation of large estates and major factories
- Creation of the Village Council (executive body)
- Constitutional Assembly elections were held in November, but the Bolsheviks did not accept the results and replaced the Assembly with the Russian Congress of Soviets.
From its inception until 1929, the new country underwent the following phases:
- War Communism: This period, covering the early years, was characterized by harsh dictates aimed at bringing the economy in line with communist principles (collectivization of the means of production). This caused significant social unrest and an economic downturn.
- NEP (New Economic Policy): This policy allowed for certain capitalist economic practices, such as removing total production requirements from farmers, supporting agricultural prices, and devaluing the ruble. These measures led to a revival of economic activity and paved the way for the Five-Year Plans.
The biggest challenges facing the new government were the civil war and international isolation.
Politically, the 1927 constitution established the following:
- The new country was renamed the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics).
- Executive power was vested in the Council of People’s Commissars.
- Legislative power resided with the Supreme Soviet.
In practice, there was no separation of powers because the Communist Party was the only legal party and controlled all aspects of power.
The Stalin Era (1924-1953)
Upon Lenin’s death, a troika consisting of Stalin, Trotsky, and Zinoviev was formed. However, Stalin eventually removed his rivals from power and established personal rule.
His domestic policy was characterized by a dictatorship marked by ongoing repressions and purges within the party.
He abandoned the NEP and replaced it with a centralized economy, creating Gosplan (the state planning committee) to guide economic development.
Five-Year Plans were implemented to pursue Soviet industrial development, involving massive investments in heavy industry and the distribution of industrial complexes across the country, particularly east of the Urals.
These plans led to the industrialization of the USSR but came at the expense of agriculture. Industrial growth was driven by the development of weapons and heavy industry, forcing the population to endure harsh living conditions to finance this development.
Agricultural properties were collectivized and replaced by two types of farms:
- Sovkhoz (State Farm): Farms cultivated by state employees.
- Kolkhoz (Collective Farm): Socialist production cooperatives in which members rented machinery from the state and delivered their products. This was the more common type.
In 1936, a new constitution was adopted, recognizing the USSR as a federal state.
Elections were held every four years, and at the end of World War II, the Cold War between the USSR and the Western world began.
The Khrushchev Era (1953-1964)
With Stalin’s death, a new troika consisting of Khrushchev, Beria, and Malenkov was formed. Khrushchev eventually consolidated power. This period was characterized by:
- De-Stalinization: Khrushchev criticized the previous period and rejected Stalin’s personal dictatorship.
- Focus on consumer goods: Khrushchev aimed to match the Soviet standard of living with the West, modernize agriculture, and develop an ambitious space program.
- Agricultural reforms: The number of kolkhozes was reduced, and they were given more autonomy over their production. Agrogorod (agricultural villages equipped with various services) were built.
Initially, these projects were successful but were later hampered by a series of poor harvests, forcing the state to import food. In 1963, Khrushchev was removed from power due to the poor economic situation and his foreign policy, which led to the Berlin Crisis, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and the breakdown of relations with China.
The Brezhnev Era (1964-1982)
Brezhnev’s rise to power marked a return to some of Stalin’s theoretical principles. Gosplan’s decisions became binding, and attempts were made to reconcile economic centralization with increased business autonomy.
Efforts continued to reduce the gap between the countryside and the city and raise the standard of living. However, the 1973 economic crisis worsened the Soviet Union’s situation, leading to economic stagnation. Declining productivity, increased corruption, and absenteeism became prevalent. The authorities were forced to import food and consumer goods.
In foreign policy, there were attempts to suppress dissent within the Soviet bloc (Czechoslovakia in 1968). In 1980, the Polish authorities were forced to legalize the Solidarity trade union, which was critical of the system. A second Cold War emerged due to Soviet intervention in Afghanistan and the installation of missiles aimed at Central Europe, despite promises of nuclear disarmament.
After Brezhnev’s death, he was succeeded by Andropov and Chernenko.
The Gorbachev Era (1985-1991)
Gorbachev’s rule is defined by two key concepts:
- Perestroika (Restructuring): This aimed to address economic stagnation. It involved reducing military spending and implementing profound economic reforms, including:
- Allowing small private businesses
- Permitting kolkhozes to directly market their products
- Allowing the creation of small cooperatives
- Combating corruption
- Recognizing the independence of the Baltic republics
- Glasnost (Openness): This resulted in greater freedom of expression.
Reduced political and military pressure led to the rise of democracy in Eastern Europe, ending most communist regimes (fall of the Berlin Wall). In August 1991, a coup attempt aimed at restoring communist orthodoxy in the USSR failed, but it accelerated the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The following year, numerous republics declared independence, held democratic elections, and formed the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).