Hominization and Pre-Roman Peoples of the Iberian Peninsula
1. Hominization
Hominization is the evolutionary process by which humans evolved from earlier primates. The most ancient hominid found in the Iberian Peninsula, and also in Europe, is a jaw fragment belonging to the species Homo ancestor. It was discovered in Atapuerca (Burgos) and dates back 1,200,000 years. Evidence suggests that the individuals from Atapuerca were victims of cannibalistic practices.
Homo ancestor had two evolutionary paths:
- In Europe, it evolved into Homo heidelberguensis, which also appears in Atapuerca and dates back 300,000 years. The remains found were deposited in what appears to be the oldest known funerary practice. In turn, this species evolved into Homo neanderthalensis, dating back 100,000 years. The latest findings come from the cave of El Sidrón (Asturias). They mastered fire.
- In Africa, Homo ancestor evolved into a species with higher intellectual ability called Homo sapiens sapiens, the species currently present. Around 40,000 years ago, this species coincided and competed with Homo neanderthalensis. However, the superiority of Homo sapiens sapiens led to it becoming the only species present by 30,000 BC, while Homo neanderthalensis became extinct.
Pre-Roman Peoples of the Iberian Peninsula
When the Romans began their conquest, they encountered two distinct areas:
a) Peoples of the Celtic Area
These peoples, possibly including the Vascones, were distributed across the central and northern Iberian Peninsula. They emerged from the fusion of indigenous peoples with Indo-European migrants.
Features:
- Economy: Primarily based on transhumance, livestock grazing, and rudimentary agriculture.
- Social Structure: Organized in tribes.
- Political Development: Limited political evolution. Tribal leaders gained prestige through leadership ability.
b) Iberian Area
This group of peoples appeared in the south and east of the Iberian Peninsula. They were influenced by Phoenician and Greek cultures.
Features:
- Economy: Relatively developed, with significant craft production, trade, and the use of currency.
- Social Structure: Significant social differences (landowning aristocracy, merchant groups, artisans, peasants, and slaves).
- Political Organization: Cities were organized independently, without a unified state. Power was exercised by a monarch or an aristocratic senate acting as an assembly.
Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians
These were culturally advanced peoples from the eastern Mediterranean. They established colonies (with no major territorial ambitions) in strategic cities along the Mediterranean coast and across the Strait of Gibraltar. Their objective was to establish trade links with the indigenous peoples of the Iberian Peninsula, leading to significant cultural development.
- Phoenicians: The first to arrive, they founded colonies in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, such as Cádiz.
- Greeks: They expanded across the northeast, founding colonies such as Empúries and Roses.
Around 600 BC, the Phoenician colonies began to decline, and many settlements were taken over by the Carthaginians (originally from a Phoenician city located in North Africa). The Carthaginians pursued an aggressive policy of conquest in the south, establishing a major base of operations in Carthago Nova (Cartagena) and conquering Ibiza.
Kingdom of Tartessos
In the southwestern Iberian Peninsula, a civilization known as Tartessos emerged. It had an advanced political organization, with power residing in a king. Its economy was developed, with notable craft production and trade. They practiced mining.
Roman Hispania
1. Origins of the Conquest
During the 3rd century BC, Rome embarked on an expansion across the Mediterranean driven by:
- The Roman aristocracy’s desire to increase their land holdings.
- The search for slaves and raw materials to exploit.
- The prestige gained from wars as a form of political advancement among Roman elites.
Punic Wars: Clashes between Rome and Carthage
First Punic War: Rome expelled the Carthaginians from southern Italy, Sardinia, and Sicily, and attempted to strengthen its position in Sicily. Carthage sought to consolidate its position in the Iberian Peninsula, with Carthaginian policy led by the Barcid Dynasty (Hamilcar, Hasdrubal, Hannibal). The Carthaginians founded Carthago Nova (Cartagena) as their principal base of operations.
The Carthaginian attack on Sagunto, an Iberian city allied with Rome, prompted the Roman army to intervene in the Iberian Peninsula and declare war on the Carthaginians.
Second Punic War: Rome fought Carthage for control of the Mediterranean. Rome gained control of the southeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula, previously occupied by the Carthaginians.
Celtiberian-Lusitanian Wars
Rome began the conquest of the central and western Iberian Peninsula, encountering strong resistance from the Celtic peoples of the area, such as the Lusitanians (led by Viriathus) and the Celtiberians.
Cantabrian-Asturian Wars
Augustus led the war against the tribes of the north (the only ones who had not yet been subdued), reaching the mountainous regions (but failing to completely dominate them).
3. Process of Romanization: Cultural Legacy
Romanization: The process by which the populations conquered by Rome assimilated Roman culture and ways of life. This occurred through three main channels:
- Cities: Indigenous towns were refounded by the Romans.
- Army: Military camps were transformed into cities. Indigenous people could join the Roman army, gaining social advancement and opportunities to obtain land or Roman citizenship.
Different areas experienced varying degrees of Romanization.
Visigothic Spain: Barbarian Invasions
From the 3rd century onwards, the Roman Empire had been in contact with tribes located beyond its borders. This pressure from the barbarians intensified, coinciding with the economic and social crisis that Rome was experiencing. Finally, Odoacer, king of the Heruli, defeated the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, in 476 (marking the end of the Ancient Age).
Reasons for the Barbarian Invasions:
- A large number of Germanic peoples had settled peacefully within the Roman borders as farmers or mercenaries.
- Until the 4th century, Rome controlled immigration, but by the end of the century, the pressure led to massive breaches of the frontiers.
- Population growth created a need for new land and resources.
- Service as mercenaries allowed the barbarians to gain knowledge about the Roman Empire.
- Many Roman citizens supported the barbarians, seeking greater justice and less corruption.
Visigothic Institutions
In 476, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Visigoths settled in southern Gaul and Spain, forming the Kingdom of Toulouse (with Toulouse as its capital).
In 507, the Visigoths were defeated by the Franks at the Battle of Vouillé and driven out of Gaul. This led to a massive settlement of Visigoths in Hispania and the formation of the Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo (with Toledo as its capital).
The Visigothic Kingdom had an elective monarchy. The king was elected by an assembly of nobles and bishops, which was a constant source of conflict.
The king was advised by a council of nobles called the Aula Regia. Senior officials were also recruited from the nobility and formed the Officium Palatinum.
Councils of Toledo: These were solemn assemblies where the king met with bishops and nobles. These assemblies passed important laws for the kingdom.