Humanism and the Renaissance: A New Era in Europe
Humanism and the Renaissance
A new mentality emerged in 14th-century Italy, placing man at the center of the world. This humanism spread throughout Europe during the 15th century, culminating in the 16th-century Renaissance.
Characteristics of Humanism
- Exalted reason and freedom
- Inspired by Greco-Roman culture
- Interest in science and technical progress, fostering a new scientific spirit
- Use of vernacular languages (French, Spanish, Italian, etc.)
Erasmus of Rotterdam was the most prominent humanist. The invention of the printing press in 1450 facilitated the dissemination of humanist ideas. Academies focused on language, literature, and philosophy. Patronage of scholars and the role of universities were also crucial in the formation and transmission of new knowledge. Gutenberg’s printing press revolutionized the spread of books.
The Religious Reformation
By the end of the Middle Ages, there was growing unease with the direction of the Church due to:
- Exaggerated luxury of the high ecclesiastical hierarchy
- Low culture among the clergy
- Purchase of benefices and the sale of indulgences
Some humanists criticized these practices and advocated for a more intimate religious experience and the reading of the Bible. In 1515, a confrontation arose when Pope Leo X wanted to sell indulgences to fund the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica. Martin Luther’s criticism of the Church began in 1517 with the publication of his 95 Theses. He proposed a new religious spirituality and received support from German princes and noblemen.
Lutheranism’s Three Basic Principles
- Salvation by faith
- Universal priesthood
- Authority of the Bible
Lutheranism quickly spread to Germany, Switzerland, Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, England.
Other Reformers
- Calvinism, spread by John Calvin, was more radical and advocated predestination.
- Anglicanism in England arose when King Henry VIII separated from Rome and declared himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England.
The Quattrocento (15th Century)
The Renaissance first flourished in 15th-century Italy, beginning in Florence under the Medici family.
- Architecture emphasized simple elements and rational space, inspired by Greco-Roman models (e.g., Filippo Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti).
- Sculpture focused on the human body, following classical models (e.g., Donatello, Ghiberti).
- Painting saw innovations in perspective, depth, and character psychology (e.g., Masaccio, Botticelli, Piero della Francesca).
The Cinquecento (16th Century)
In the 16th century, the art capital shifted from Florence to Rome. The popes became major patrons of the arts.
- Architecture flourished under papal patronage (e.g., Michelangelo).
- Sculpture continued to excel (e.g., Michelangelo).
- Painting emphasized the expression of feelings (e.g., Leonardo da Vinci’s sfumato technique, Raphael’s technical mastery, portraits, and elegant compositions). Michelangelo decorated the Sistine Chapel.
The Venetian school also emerged (e.g., Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto).
The Authoritarian Monarchy (1479-1516)
The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469 united their territories but maintained separate kingdoms. They pursued a policy of territorial expansion:
- Conquered the Nasrid kingdom of Granada in 1492.
- Incorporated Navarre in 1515.
- Developed policies with Portugal, leading to its inheritance by Philip II.
Their international policy focused on the Mediterranean (conquering Naples in 1505) and the Atlantic (consolidating control over the Canary Islands in 1496), laying the foundation for the future Spanish empire.