Humanism, Reformation, and Renaissance: A Deep Dive
Humanism: A Cultural Renewal
Humanism was a movement of cultural renewal that originated in Italy in the 15th century and expanded into Europe in the early 16th century. It was characterized by:
- A change in attitudes, rejecting the medieval mindset focused on God, and exalting the human being, endowed with reason and freedom.
- Inspiration from Greco-Roman culture, including the translation of ancient authors like Plato and Aristotle.
- A strong interest in science and technical progress.
- The use of vernacular languages as vehicles of cultural transmission.
Academies were significant sources of humanist thought. Scholars engaged in the translation of ancient manuscripts and the exchange of ideas. Universities played a crucial role in the training and transfer of new knowledge.
The Reformation: A Religious Revolution
The Reformation was triggered by several factors, including:
- The excessive luxury in which the high ecclesiastical hierarchy lived.
- The lack of culture and the relaxation of morals among the clergy.
- The sale of ecclesiastical offices for profit rather than religious vocation.
- The sale of bulls and indulgences.
Martin Luther challenged the value of indulgences and the power of the Church to grant them, proposing a new religious spirituality. He was supported by German princes and nobles who sought to acquire Church properties and reinforce their authority against Charles V and the Pope. Lutheranism is based on salvation by faith, the universal priesthood, and the sole authority of the Bible.
Calvinism and Anglicanism
Calvinism, founded by John Calvin, was more radical than Lutheranism and defended the doctrine of predestination.
Anglicanism emerged when Henry VIII, through the Act of Supremacy, separated from Rome and established himself as the head of the Church of England. It maintained many Catholic dogmas and solemn worship.
The Counter-Reformation: The Church Responds
The Counter-Reformation involved the persecution of Protestants and a reform of the Catholic Church. Key aspects included:
- The establishment of the Inquisition, an ecclesiastical court that pursued and punished heretics.
- The Congregation of the Index, which created a list of books contrary to Catholic doctrine.
- Those suspected of heresy were subjected to an “act of faith.”
The Council of Trent reaffirmed the dogma of salvation through good works, the seven sacraments, and the importance of tradition. It also prohibited the sale of indulgences, established seminaries, mandated resident bishops in dioceses and parishes, and required priests to remain celibate. The catechism was created to standardize religious instruction.
The Renaissance: A Rebirth of Classical Ideals
The Renaissance marked a return to the ideals of Greco-Roman culture. The cult of individualism and personal effort favored increased personal enrichment. Religion was no longer the sole center of cultural and spiritual life. The medieval knight evolved into the courtier, a warrior who was also cultured and refined. Painters and sculptors embraced secular themes from classical mythology. They sought to capture ideal beauty in their works and were concerned with the study of nature and human anatomy. Painters also adopted the use of perspective.
Quattrocento: The Early Renaissance
The Quattrocento was the first stage of the Renaissance’s flowering. Architects sought to create rational spaces using arches, columns, pediments, cornices, and cupolas. Sculptors focused on representing the human body. Painters used perspective rationally.
Cinquecento: The High Renaissance
In the 16th century, the capital of art shifted from Florence to Rome, marking the second period of the Renaissance, the Cinquecento. Notable architects included Bramante and Michelangelo (St. Peter’s Basilica). Sculpture focused on expressing feelings rather than solely on proportion and balance (Michelangelo, Benvenuto Cellini). Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo (Sistine Chapel) were the most prominent painters.
The Spread of the Renaissance
In Flanders, the Italian Renaissance had limited influence. Painters developed a style characterized by attention to detail, realism, and portraiture, with a complete absence of allusions to classical antiquity. In Germany, portraits and landscapes became favorite subjects. Albrecht Dürer introduced Renaissance aesthetics to Germany. In France, the Renaissance spread quickly through the actions of the monarch, who surrounded himself with Italian artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Benvenuto Cellini at his court.