Hundred Years’ War: Origins, Battles, and Aftermath
The Hundred Years’ War, as it has been known since the 19th century, was a protracted military conflict between France and England that spanned much of the Middle Ages. A series of interconnected conflicts, it eventually drew in other Western European kingdoms, marking it as arguably the first major international war in Europe.
While Edward III of England’s claim to the French throne in 1327 is often cited as the war’s origin, this dynastic dispute was merely a pretext, not the primary cause. The conflict’s roots lay in a complex interplay of political and economic factors. Chief among these was control of the Duchy of Guyenne and Gascony, the last vestiges of the Angevin Empire in France. Although Guyenne was an English fief, French kings, as feudal overlords, claimed the right to intervene in its affairs. This feudal tension, exacerbated by disputes over Scotland, Brittany, Flanders, and the succession of Artois, created a volatile environment ripe for conflict. The French seizure of Guyenne in 1294 and 1323 further fueled Anglo-French hostility. Flanders, economically dependent on English wool but feudally subordinate to France, became a flashpoint. After the Battle of Cassel in 1328, the Count of Flanders allied with Philip VI of France, threatening English interests. Edward III retaliated by banning wool exports to Flanders in 1336, crippling Flemish artisans. Philip VI’s subsequent seizure of Guyenne in 1337 prompted Edward III to renounce his homage and claim the French throne, transforming the dynastic issue into a means of securing Guyenne.
Edward III initially focused on Flanders. In 1339, Flemish cities, led by Jacob van Artevelde, revolted and welcomed Edward III, who declared himself King of France. The English naval victory at Sluys in 1340, however, could not be capitalized upon due to lack of resources, leading to a truce. Shifting his focus, Edward III exploited a succession dispute in Brittany, supporting John of Montfort against Charles of Blois, Philip VI’s nephew. The Breton conflict, a testing ground for both English and French military tactics, resulted in a divided duchy and a truce in 1343. In 1345, hostilities resumed. Despite an alliance with van Artevelde, economic crisis in Flanders led to his murder and English withdrawal. Edward III then invaded France directly. His chevauchée through Normandy culminated in the Battle of Crécy in 1346, where English longbowmen devastated the French cavalry. The subsequent capture of Calais provided England a strategic foothold on the continent. Philip VI’s attempt to divert English forces by invading Scotland failed at the Battle of Neville’s Cross. Edward III further solidified his prestige by founding the Order of the Garter in 1348.
From 1346 to 1355, the Black Death and economic hardship dampened the war. However, Edward III’s naval victory at Winchelsea in 1350, a response to Castilian support for France, reinforced English naval dominance. Philip VI’s death in 1350 left France in crisis. His successor, John II, proved incapable of addressing France’s woes. The war devolved into skirmishes and raids by mercenary companies. Charles II of Navarre, a claimant to the French throne, exploited the situation, playing England and France against each other. Hostilities reignited in 1355. The Black Prince’s chevauchée through southern France and Edward III’s campaign in Scotland pressured John II, who captured Charles of Navarre in 1356. The Black Prince then launched another chevauchée north, resulting in the Battle of Poitiers, where John II was captured. John II’s captivity triggered a crisis in France. The Dauphin Charles faced revolts, including the Parisian uprising led by Étienne Marcel and the peasant Jacquerie. The Dauphin’s eventual triumph paved the way for the Treaty of Brétigny-Calais in 1360. Edward III renounced his claim to the French throne in exchange for a greatly expanded Aquitaine, Calais, and a ransom for John II. While a diplomatic success for France, the treaty’s harsh terms reflected England’s dominance in the war’s first phase.
Between 1365 and 1389, the Hundred Years’ War expanded to involve the Iberian Peninsula. The deaths of John II in 1364 and the accession of Charles V marked a turning point. Charles V, a shrewd strategist, initiated a plan to revise the Treaty of Brétigny. Exploiting the Castilian succession conflict between Peter I and Henry II, Charles V supported Henry’s invasion of Castile with the help of Bertrand du Guesclin and French mercenaries. Peter I, allied with England and Portugal, was defeated and killed at Montiel in 1369. Henry II’s victory secured Castile’s alliance with France. With Castilian support, Charles V renewed the war with England in 1369. Du Guesclin’s Fabian tactics and Castilian naval victories, including the Battle of La Rochelle in 1372, reversed English gains. John of Gaunt’s failed chevauchée through France in 1373 and Castilian raids on the English coast demonstrated the shift in momentum. The Truce of Bruges in 1375 left England holding only Calais, Bordeaux, and a few other coastal towns.
From 1377 to 1383, Franco-Castilian hegemony continued. Castilian naval power was demonstrated by the burning of Gravesend in 1380. The deaths of Edward III, the Black Prince, and Charles V ushered in a new phase. The Portuguese succession crisis of 1383 provided England an opportunity. John of Gaunt, allied with John I of Portugal, challenged Castilian claims to the Portuguese throne. The Anglo-Portuguese victory at Aljubarrota in 1385 weakened the Franco-Castilian alliance. John of Gaunt’s subsequent attempt to claim the Castilian throne failed. The Truce of Leulinghen in 1389 marked the end of major hostilities. John of Gaunt renounced his claim to Castile, and his daughter Catherine was betrothed to the future Henry III of Castile, uniting the rival dynasties.
The period from 1389 to 1415 was marked by a desire to avoid large-scale conflict. However, the power struggles within France created an opportunity for renewed English intervention. The madness of Charles VI led to a power struggle between the Armagnacs and Burgundians. The assassination of Louis of Orléans in 1407 by John the Fearless of Burgundy plunged France into civil war. In England, the deposition of Richard II in 1399 by Henry IV of Lancaster brought its own instability. Henry IV faced rebellions and consolidated his power through Parliament. His son, Henry V, a skilled military leader, saw an opportunity to exploit French divisions. In 1415, Henry V renewed the war, capturing Harfleur and decisively defeating the French at Agincourt. The Treaty of Troyes in 1420 recognized Henry V as heir to the French throne. However, the unexpected deaths of Henry V and Charles VI in 1422 left the succession disputed. The Dauphin Charles, supported by the French court, rejected the treaty, leading to the continuation of the war.
The siege of Orléans in 1428 marked a turning point. Joan of Arc, believing herself divinely inspired, rallied the French and lifted the siege. Her victories at Patay, Troyes, Châlons, and Reims culminated in Charles VII’s coronation. However, Joan was captured by the Burgundians in 1430, tried for heresy, and burned at the stake in 1431. The Peace of Arras in 1435 saw Burgundy reconcile with Charles VII, isolating the English. Charles VII’s military reforms, including the creation of a standing army, and improvements in infrastructure and finances strengthened the French monarchy. By 1450, the English had lost Normandy, and by 1453, Aquitaine. The war effectively ended with England retaining only Calais. No formal treaty was signed, but the conflict faded into an uneasy peace. The Hundred Years’ War had reshaped the political landscape of Western Europe, marking the decline of feudal warfare and the rise of centralized monarchies.
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