Iberian Peninsula History: From Prehistory to Middle Ages

Posted on Nov 19, 2024 in History

The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Early Christian Resistance

The Gaza coast and the Pyrenees, of little interest to the Muslims, became the first centers of resistance. Four main groups emerged: the counties of Pamplona, Aragon, and Catalonia, and the Cantabrian resistance. In the Cantabrian mountains, nobles organized a resistance movement. In 718, Pelayo was proclaimed king of Asturias, leading the fight against the Muslims in the Battle of Covadonga (722). Alfonso I (739-757) significantly repopulated Asturias with Mozarabs from the Duero basin. His successors paid tributes to the emirs of Córdoba until Alfonso II (781-842) achieved independence. Asturias became a kingdom with its capital at Oviedo. Later, Alfonso III expanded the territory to the Duero, moving the capital to León, thus forming the Kingdom of León. The tenth century brought a period of crisis: Count Fernán González formed the County of Castile, independent from León. The establishment of the Caliphate of Córdoba brought difficult times for León, especially under Al-Mansur.

The Kingdom of Pamplona, founded in the ninth century, consisted mainly of Basques. In the tenth century, under the Jiménez dynasty, it expanded into La Rioja, employing a policy of intermarriage with neighboring powers. Sancho III the Great brought the kingdom to its peak, annexing new territories, including Castile.

The County of Aragon, formed by a population of mountaineers engaged in livestock, was limited to the Aragón River valley, with Jaca as its most important enclave.

Beyond the Pyrenees, Charlemagne created a buffer zone between Islam and the Franks, conquering Girona and Barcelona. These counties initially remained under Frankish control but were entrusted to noble families. Eventually, these positions became hereditary. Borrell II declared independence with the end of the Carolingian dynasty.

Main Stages of the Reconquista

The Christian kingdoms underwent significant changes between the 11th and 13th centuries due to the Reconquista, disputes between Christian territories, and the patrimonial conception of the monarchy. After the death of Sancho III the Great, his territories were divided among his sons.

Aragon was given to Ramiro I. In 1137, it was united with the County of Barcelona after the childless death of Alfonso I. His brother, Ramiro II, became king and married his daughter to Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona, who eventually inherited the throne.
Castile was given to Ferdinand I, who later united it with León in 1230 under Ferdinand III. Prior to this, Afonso Henriques proclaimed himself King of Portugal, achieving independence from the Castilian-Leonese monarchy.

Several factors contributed to the Reconquista: the idea of restoring the Visigothic monarchy, the spirit of crusade against the Muslims, population growth, and improved weaponry.

First Stage (8th-10th centuries): Christians occupied sparsely populated territories like the Duero basin and the Pyrenean foothills. Al-Andalus held a position of strength, particularly in the 10th century.

Second Stage (11th-first half of the 12th century): This marked the true beginning of the Reconquista with the fall of the Caliphate and its fragmentation into Taifa kingdoms. Christian kingdoms exploited this, demanding parias (tributes) and advancing their territories. Alfonso VI conquered Toledo in 1085. The Muslims sought help from the Almoravids, who defeated Alfonso VI on three occasions but failed to reclaim lost territories. By 1147, the Tagus and Ebro valleys were conquered. El Cid (Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar) conquered Valencia, which fell to the Almoravids after his death.

Third Stage (second half of the 12th century): The arrival of the Almohads coincided with disputes among the Christian kingdoms, limiting the Reconquista to the upper reaches of the Júcar, Guadiana, and Turia rivers. Military orders like Calatrava, Santiago, and Alcántara were formed. Treaties between Castile-León and the Crown of Aragon demarcated their respective territories.

Fourth Stage: After the Almohad victory at the Battle of Alarcos (1195), the Christian kingdoms united, defeating the Almohads at Las Navas de Tolosa (1212). The Reconquista continued. Portugal completed its conquests in the 13th century. Castile, the slowest to complete the Reconquista, conquered Andalusia under Alfonso X. Murcia was incorporated, leaving only the Kingdom of Granada.

The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Models of Repopulation and Social Organization

Reconquered territories required repopulation, using different methods depending on the period, resulting in varied land ownership structures. North of the Tagus, small and medium-sized properties predominated, while south of the Tagus, large estates were common.

Repopulation by presura (8th-10th centuries): Unoccupied land became the property of those who cultivated it. Individual presura created small properties, while collective presura, led by nobles or monasteries, created medium-sized properties.

Concejo Repopulation (11th-12th centuries): Population growth led to the division of territory into concejos (councils) with large districts. The king appointed a representative and provided knights for defense. Each concejo received a charter outlining its governance. People received houses and farmland, including abundant common lands. Muslims also resided in these areas. This method led to free medium-sized properties.

Military Orders Repopulation (first half of the 12th century): Large, sparsely populated areas, mainly in the Guadiana valley, Teruel, and north of Castellón, were conquered by military orders. Land was divided into parcels and administered by commanders, resulting in large estates dedicated to agriculture.

Repartimiento Repopulation (second half of the 13th century): Conquered areas in the Guadalquivir valley and the eastern coast were divided into donadíos (allotments) distributed according to social rank. This also generated large estates, although concejo repopulation also occurred.

Sociopolitical Structure

Señoríos (manors) were territories granted by the king. Initially, these grants didn’t include existing properties, but by the 12th century, they evolved into jurisdictional lordships. Society was stratified into three estates: clergy, nobility, and commoners. Only the first two enjoyed privileges. This rigid system made social mobility difficult, with the clergy being the most open estate.

Nobility: Entry into the nobility was by royal appointment and hereditary. The high nobility included dukes and counts, the mid-nobility included knights, and the low nobility included gentry. Nobles enjoyed legal and tax privileges. Those with señoríos held various rights: land rights (rent collection), personal rights (lodging and mobilization of subjects), monopolies (mills, tolls, and bridges), and jurisdictional rights (appointing municipal authorities and administering justice).

Clergy: The clergy also enjoyed privileges. The high clergy included bishops and abbots, while the lower clergy included parish priests. The Church owned señoríos and collected tithes (one-tenth of the crops). It was the only estate open to commoners, though they could only join the lower clergy.

Commoners: This estate comprised workers who paid taxes. It was a heterogeneous group, mostly farmers, but also including craftsmen and merchants. Artisans and merchants formed an independent bourgeoisie in the cities, free from seigneurial power.

The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: A Pluralistic Culture

Medieval Iberia was a pluralistic culture with Mudéjars (Muslims in Christian territory), Mozarabs (Christians in Muslim territory), and Jewish communities. This fostered cultural contact and exchange of knowledge. In Christian Europe, the Church preserved and transmitted culture, primarily through religious texts. Literacy was limited to the clergy, some nobles, and officials. Monastic schools, like those in Ripoll and Sahagún, were the main centers of learning until the 11th century.

With the urban revival in the 12th century, cathedral schools emerged, providing elementary education to the children of the bourgeoisie, nobility, and clergy. Colleges taught theology and liberal arts. Universities, or General Studies, founded by kings and independent of the Church, required papal approval for recognition. The Toledo School of Translators, which flourished under Alfonso X, bridged the Islamic and Christian worlds. Christians, Muslims, and Jews collaborated, translating Arabic texts into Latin and Castilian, disseminating Greek, Roman, and Oriental scientific, philosophical, and literary works.

The discovery of the remains of St. James in the ninth century led to the development of the Camino de Santiago, a major route for cultural exchange. The Cluniac order built 30 monasteries in Spain to counter Islam and control the Hispanic Church.

Political Organization and Institutions in the Middle Ages: The Kingdom of Castile

In Castile, despite the expansion of domains through contractual pacts, the king’s authority grew in the late Middle Ages, supported by the authoritarian theory of divine right. Key institutions included:

Royal Council (1385): Evolved from the Curia Regia (a council of magnates advising the king), it became dominated by lawyers (eight lawyers, two bishops, and two nobles).
Audiencia (1371): The supreme court of justice, eventually established permanently in Valladolid as the Chancery.

The monarchy increased its control at the local level through:

Restricted councils (regimientos): Power resided with an oligarchy appointed by the king from the aristocracy and bourgeoisie.
Corregidores: Initially judicial officers, they became permanent city officials with expanding powers.

Political Organization and Institutions in the Middle Ages: The Crown of Aragon

The Crown of Aragon was a confederation of territories governed by the contractual-pact theory, respecting the laws and institutions of each region. The feudal concept of agreement between lord and subjects prevailed. After conquering Sicily in 1282, Pedro III faced opposition from the Pope and France. To secure the nobility’s support, he granted the General Privilege (1283), requiring him to convene the Cortes (parliament) periodically and obtain their approval for major decisions, limiting royal power. Key institutions included:

Viceroyalties: Territories ruled by a viceroy, often a royal family member, representing the king.
Cortes: Assemblies representing each estate of each territory, with legislative powers, limiting the Crown’s authority.
Provincial Councils: Initially formed for tax collection and ensuring royal compliance, they later became permanent bodies:
- Diputación General or Generalitat of Catalonia (1359): Composed of six members (two from each estate), it initially had a fiscal role but gained political functions.
- Diputación of Aragon (1412): Similar to Catalonia’s, it also gained political functions.
- Diputación of the Kingdom of Valencia (1419): Did not acquire political functions.
Justice of Aragon: A nobleman appointed by the Cortes to protect Aragonese privileges against royal authority.

Municipalities fell under the control of urban oligarchies. Each municipality had:

A royal appointee with diminishing powers.
Elected officials, not appointed by the king.
A municipal council, an advisory body.

The Crown gradually imposed insaculación, a more democratic election procedure.

The Middle Ages: Demographic, Economic, and Political Crisis

The late Middle Ages saw a halt in growth and an economic crisis affecting agriculture, demographics, and society, though trade remained unaffected. Poor harvests led to food shortages and subsistence crises. The Black Death, a rodent-borne disease, arrived in Spain in 1348 through trade, spreading throughout the country by 1350, causing widespread death and depopulation. The plague also had a major psychological impact, increasing religiosity and hedonism.

Lords suffered due to the end of conquests, the death of their subjects, rising prices, and the weakening monarchy. They usurped royal lands and tightened conditions for peasants, who could only leave their land by purchasing freedom (remença peasants).

Social tensions arose due to economic hardship, leading to peasant rebellions against seigneurial abuses and urban conflicts. These conflicts included struggles against the oligarchy, rivalries between noble factions, and pogroms against Jews, who were blamed for the crisis.

The political crisis marked the transition to authoritarian monarchy, characterized by civil wars in Castile, Navarre, and Catalonia.

Castile experienced two phases: the 14th-century crisis and the 15th-century recovery. The crisis involved an agrarian crisis, the Black Death, and the civil war between Pedro I (supported by England and funded by Jews), who aimed for an authoritarian monarchy, and his brother Henry (supported by France). Henry’s victory established the Trastámara dynasty and empowered the nobility. The nobility was rewarded, and primogeniture (inheritance by the eldest son) became common, increasing noble power and political influence, exemplified by the execution of Álvaro de Luna, the king’s favorite, and the deposition and humiliation of Henry IV in the Farce of Ávila (1465).

The Catalan civil war between John II (favoring absolutism) and the oligarchy ended with John’s victory, the Capitulation of Pedralbes, and the imposition of authoritarian monarchy.

The Middle Ages: The Expansion of the Crown of Aragon in the Mediterranean

The Crown of Aragon experienced three stages in the late Middle Ages: demographic and economic growth in the first half of the 14th century, a crisis in the second half affecting mainly Catalonia, and recovery in the 15th century, except in Catalonia, where the crisis worsened.

All territories except Aragon had Mediterranean access, promoting trade and expansion. Aragon acquired Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, and the Kingdom of Naples, facing opposition from France and the Papacy. It briefly held Athens and Neopatria, conquered by the Almogavars. James II (1291-1327) furthered Catalan-Aragonese imperialism in the Mediterranean, exemplified by the Almogavars’ adventures.

Catalonia, particularly Barcelona, played a key role in international trade, exporting iron and importing grain, textiles from Sardinia and Sicily, and spices from Byzantium, Syria, and Egypt. The Book of the Consulate of the Sea codified maritime trade, and consulates were established in trading partners’ territories, led by consuls and operating within alfondazgos (designated areas).

Trade declined with the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453, closing Mediterranean spice routes and leading to the rise of Atlantic routes.

The Humanization Process in the Iberian Peninsula: New Findings

Human evolution began in Africa around five million years ago. Homo ergaster was the first to leave Africa, spreading to Asia and the Near East, evolving into Homo erectus. The European evolutionary process, including the Iberian Peninsula, began a million years ago:

Homo antecessor (800,000 years ago): Found in Atapuerca (Burgos), they descended from Homo ergaster, practiced cannibalism, were tall and strong, with small brains and faces similar to modern humans.
Homo heidelbergensis (300,000 years ago): Numerous fossils found in Atapuerca’s Sima de los Huesos.
Homo neanderthalensis: Reached maximum expansion between 80,000 and 50,000 years ago, disappearing around 30,000 years ago. Closer to modern humans but not a direct ancestor. They developed sophisticated tools, used fire, and buried their dead. They inhabited Europe, the Near East, and Asia. Homo sapiens (Cro-Magnon), an independent branch, replaced Homo neanderthalensis around 30,000 years ago.

The Pre-Roman Peoples

The Kingdom of Tartessos, the first state in the Iberian Peninsula, had a strong agricultural, livestock, mineral, and commercial economy, with a hierarchical society and monarchy. It disappeared in the 5th century BC, followed by Turdetania. The Iberian Peninsula was then divided into two areas:

Iberian area (south and east): The Iberians, influenced by Greeks and Phoenicians, were more advanced, with a strong economy, active trade, and currency. Their society was stratified by wealth and power, with a state-like organization and monarchical and democratic forms of government. Their art included sculptures like the Lady of Elche.
Celtic area (north, central, and west): The Celts, entering through the Pyrenees, were less developed than the Iberians, though they gradually adopted Iberian culture. They had an agricultural and livestock economy with limited trade and no currency. Organized into clans and lineages led by a chief and council of elders, they lived in castros (circular stone hut villages) with a pre-state political organization and little wealth disparity. Celtiberians emerged from the fusion of indigenous peoples and Celtic invaders.

The Colonization Period: Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians

The Mediterranean zone attracted settlers seeking metals and other resources, integrating the peninsula into Mediterranean trade routes.

Phoenicians: Arriving in the 9th century BC, they founded colonies near the Strait of Gibraltar, including Gadir (Cádiz) in 800 BC, followed by Málaga and Almuñécar. After Tyre’s fall to the Babylonians, Carthage controlled Phoenician trade. Initially traders, they later invaded the peninsula, defeating the Greeks at Alalia, strengthening their Mediterranean position. They introduced the alphabet, currency, ironwork, textiles, salting, and the potter’s wheel.
Greeks: From their colony of Massilia (Marseille), they established colonies on the Catalan coast in the 6th century BC, including Emporion (Ampurias) and Rhode (Rosas). They introduced their alphabet, currency, urban structures, and crops.
Carthaginians: Rome’s expansion in the western Mediterranean led to the First Punic War, in which Carthage lost Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia. Carthage expanded into the Iberian Peninsula, establishing New Carthage as its capital. Rome used Carthage’s attack on Sagunto as a pretext for the Second Punic War, resulting in the Roman occupation of the peninsula.

Stages of the Roman Conquest

The Roman conquest, spanning the 3rd to 1st centuries BC, involved three stages:

First Stage (218-197 BC): The Second Punic War resulted in the occupation of the Iberian area (east and south).
Second Stage (154-133 BC): Conquest of central and western Iberia, facing resistance from local peoples, including Viriathus’s Lusitanian guerrilla warfare and the resistance of Numantia, which fell in 133 BC. Roman control secured access to mineral resources.
Third Stage (29-19 BC): The Cantabrian-Asturian Wars under Augustus led to the subjugation of Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, and the Basque Country. These campaigns faced fierce resistance from the less-developed northern populations, many of whom were enslaved. Rome aimed to control the peninsula and exploit its mineral wealth.

The Romanization Process and Cultural Legacy

Romanization, the assimilation of Roman culture and lifestyle, varied across the peninsula. The Iberian area was most Romanized, while the central and western areas were less so, and the north hardly at all. Romanization involved:

Urbanization: Existing Iberian cities became Roman dependents, while new cities were founded elsewhere.
Military recruitment: Indigenous people joined auxiliary troops, gaining contact with Romans and eventually Roman citizenship, which conferred privileges, rights, and land. Citizenship was gradually extended, starting with the indigenous aristocracy.
Roman colonies: Established on confiscated land, these colonies disseminated Roman life. Land was granted to Roman soldiers.
Cultural imposition: Latin became the common language, and Roman law, religion, art, and education spread.

The 1st century AD saw significant contributions to Latin culture from Hispania, particularly from the Iberian area:

Baetica: Seneca, Lucan, Columella, and Pommel.
Ebro Valley: Quintilian and Martial.

The Visigothic Monarchy and Institutions

The Visigoths entered the peninsula as Roman federates. After Rome’s fall and their defeat by the Franks, they established their kingdom in Iberia. The Visigothic monarchy was elective, with kings chosen by magnates and later also prelates. This led to factionalism and conflict. Key institutions included:

Aula Regia: A council of elders advising the king.
Officium Palatinum: The inner circle of the Aula Regia, composed of the king’s most trusted magnates, responsible for central administration and the royal household.

The Visigoths retained the Roman provincial division, each ruled by a duke, further divided into territories governed by counts or judges. Initially Arian Christians, they converted to Catholicism under Reccared in the Third Council of Toledo, achieving religious unity and gaining the support of the Hispano-Roman aristocracy and Church. The Church gained prominence, and the Councils of Toledo acquired legislative functions. Recceswinth achieved social unification by compiling existing laws into the Liber Iudiciorum. Territorial unification was completed with the conquest of the northwest (Suebi), north (Basques), and south (Byzantine Empire).

The Muslim Conquest

The Visigothic kingdom, weakened by its elective monarchy and a civil war between King Roderic and Witiza’s son, Agila, faced a Muslim invasion. In 711, Tariq, the governor of North Africa, led a Berber force that defeated Roderic at the Battle of Guadalete. Musa joined Tariq in Toledo, completing the conquest by 714, encountering little resistance except in the Cantabrian and Pyrenean regions. Muslim tolerance towards Christians and Jews, considered”People of the Book” facilitated the conquest. Two methods were used:

Unconditional surrender: Resistance resulted in loss of all rights.
Agreed surrender (capitulation): More common, allowing conquered populations to retain land rights in exchange for tribute.

Arabs settled in fertile lands, while Berbers occupied less desirable areas, leading to the Berber Revolt of 741. Syrian troops were brought in to quell the rebellion.

The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: The Emirate and Caliphate of Córdoba

Dependent Emirate (714-756)

Al-Andalus was a province of the Damascus Caliphate, ruled by an emir. This period saw political instability and military campaigns, including defeats at Covadonga (securing Asturian independence) and Poitiers (ending expansion beyond the Pyrenees).

Independent Emirate (756-929)

In 750, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate. Abd-al-Rahman I, the only surviving Umayyad, fled to Al-Andalus, proclaiming himself emir and establishing Córdoba as the capital. The emirate achieved political independence from the Abbasids but maintained religious ties. This period focused on consolidating Muslim power.

Caliphate of Córdoba (929-1031)

In 929, Abd-al-Rahman III proclaimed himself caliph, achieving full independence. This marked the peak of Muslim power, especially under Al-Hakam II. Al-Mansur established a military dictatorship, launching raids against Christian kingdoms. The caliphate disintegrated into Taifa kingdoms after his death in 1002.

The Crisis of the 11th Century: The Taifa Kingdoms

The Caliphate’s collapse led to the emergence of Taifa kingdoms, which engaged in internal conflicts. Weaker kingdoms were annexed by stronger ones. Due to their military weakness, they paid parias to Christian kingdoms. Despite political fragmentation, they remained economically and culturally prosperous. The Christian conquest of Toledo prompted the Taifas to seek help from the Almoravids, who defeated Alfonso VI at Sagrajas (1086). By 1090, the Almoravids unified the Taifas but continued losing territory. Their religious intolerance alienated Christian, Jewish, and even some Muslim populations. The Almoravid decline in North Africa led to the emergence of the Second Taifa kingdoms in 1145.

The Almohads arrived in 1146, unifying the Taifas by 1172, with Seville as their capital. Initial victories against the Christians were reversed at Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), leading to further Christian conquests. Almohad intolerance further alienated non-Muslims. Their decline led to the Third Taifa kingdoms, most of which fell to the Christians, leaving only Granada.

Al-Andalus: Economic and Social Organization

Agriculture remained the economic base, with improvements in irrigation, including ditches and wells, and the introduction of new crops (citrus, rice, sugarcane). The land ownership structure, dominated by large estates, remained largely unchanged, though ownership shifted after the conquest. Urban life flourished under Muslim rule.

Islamic cities were structured around a central medina, housing the main mosque and souk (market). The alcaicería housed luxury trade. State-run and private alhóndigas provided storage and accommodation for merchants. Residential areas surrounded the medina, followed by suburbs with their own souks and mosques.

Crafts flourished, particularly textiles (silk brocades, wool, cotton, linen), leatherwork, ceramics, and glass. Papermaking was introduced. Trade thrived due to Muslim control of the southern Mediterranean and Sudanese gold. Currencies included the gold dinar and silver dirham.

Society was divided into Muslims and non-Muslims. Muslims included the Arab aristocracy, Syrian Arabs, Berber converts, Muladí (Hispanic converts), and the Saqaliba (Slavic slaves who often served in the military). Non-Muslims included Jews (who collaborated with the conquest) and Mozarabs (Christians whose relations with Muslims worsened under the Almoravids and Almohads). Slaves included Saqaliba and black Africans, often used for domestic labor.

Al-Andalus: Thought and Literature

From the late 8th century, the Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence, a rigid interpretation of the Quran, limited philosophical thought. However, the 9th and 10th centuries saw a cultural flourishing, with Córdoba as a major center of learning. Muslims transmitted Greek and Indian science to the West, introducing the current numbering system. The Caliphate’s fall did not halt cultural development, with patronage supporting scholars.

Ibn Hazm’s The Ring of the Dove is a notable work on love. Almoravid and Almohad intolerance restricted thought, but the 12th century saw the emergence of Ibn Tufayl, Averroes (a commentator on Aristotle), and Maimonides (a Jewish physician and philosopher), whose Aristotelian thought was highly influential. The Nasrid kingdom of Granada produced Ibn Zamrak, whose poems adorn the Alhambra.