Iberian Peninsula History: From Prehistory to the Reconquista
Iberian Peninsula: A Historical Journey
1. The Process of Hominization
1. The Process of Hominization in the Iberian Peninsula. New Findings:
Prehistory explores the human journey before writing began, 800,000 years ago on the peninsula. Early Homo reached Europe from Africa; its oldest remains were found in the Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos), in the Gran Dolina, dating back 800,000 years. These were Homo ancestor remains—ancestors of two species that later lived on the peninsula: Neanderthal Man and Homo Sapiens. Current Homo arrival in the Iberian Peninsula before 40,000 BC is divided into stages according to the technology used:
- Paleolithic (800,000 BC – 8000 BC): Humans appeared; they practiced hunting and gathering. Stone tools were carved by percussion or pressure.
- Epipaleolithic (8000 BC – 5500 BC): This was the transition between the last glaciation and the emergence of agriculture; the weather improved.
- Neolithic (5500 BC – 3000 BC): Humans became sedentary; agriculture and livestock emerged. Pottery was invented, and the population increased.
- Chalcolithic (Copper Age) (3000 BC – 1800 BC): Copper and gold metallurgy emerged, along with mining and the textile industry. Long-distance trade developed.
- Bronze Age (1800 BC – 750 BC): Bronze and silver metallurgy arose.
2. Pre-Roman Peoples
2. Pre-Roman Peoples. Historic Plantations: Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians.
During the Iron Age, until the Romans arrived, there were indigenous cultures with different levels of development on the peninsula, all eventually subjected to Rome. The Iberians, farmers with their own language and alphabet, had an aristocracy and tribal leaders. Their gods were human-like, and they valued heroic warriors. Culturally, we can highlight the sculpture of the Lady of Elche. The Celts, farmers who resisted Roman conquest, lived in fortified settlements (forts). Culturally, we can highlight the Bulls of Guisando (Ávila). The Celtiberians, renowned mercenaries, were known for their barbarism, brutality, and plundering; they fought heavily with the Romans. Culturally, we can highlight the city of Numancia in Soria. From 750 BC, the most developed nations of the Eastern Mediterranean—the Greeks and Phoenicians—arrived on the peninsula. They knew the alphabet and writing, were technologically advanced in ironwork, and had sophisticated religious rites. The Phoenicians, traders who founded cities on the Andalusian coast such as Cádiz and Málaga, had great influence in that area. In the lower Guadalquivir area was Tartessos, a rich country with eastern rituals, objects, and technologies. The Greeks arrived on the Catalan coast and introduced the vine, olive tree, and coinage. The Carthaginians, from Carthage (a Phoenician city), became a power in the area and clashed with the Romans in the Punic Wars.
3. Roman Conquest and Romanization
3. Conquest and Romanization. The survival of cultural heritage in the culture. HISPANIA.
The Roman conquest of Hispania occurred in four stages:
- The victory of Rome over Carthage (Punic Wars) – (218-205 BC)
- Submission of the peninsular interior (Lusitanian and Celtiberian Wars) – (205-133 BC)
- Civil Wars in Rome – (133-31 BC)
- Submission of the northern mountains – (31-19 BC)
Romanization is the historical process by which the people of Hispania assimilated Roman lifestyles. This process was gradual, intensifying under the imperial peace from the 1st century BC. The province initially had a military administration, which gradually declined, leaving power to imperial delegates. The territory was divided into provinces (Tarragona, Lusitania…). Cities were key to Roman administration; new cities were created, and existing villages were transformed into Roman cities. Social structures changed. Roman and Italic settlers had full rights; indigenous elites imitated them, changing their way of life. Indians formed the basis of free society; after the slaves were freed. Latin was the language used by the Romans; local religious cults were respected, and Romans revered the emperor until Christianity became official.
4. Barbarian Invasions: The Visigoths
4. The Barbarian Invasions. The Visigoths: Institutions and Culture.
From the 3rd century, the Empire began to decline due to urban decay and social unrest. The empire was divided into East and West. In 409, Swabians, Vandals, and Alans settled on the peninsula as mercenaries. Clashes between Romans and emperors led to the Visigoths settling in the peninsula in 416, beginning a gradual conquest. They created kingdoms in Toulouse and then Toledo, eventually dominating the peninsula. This marked the beginning of the Middle Ages in the Peninsula. Due to rebellions and conspiracies among Visigothic monarchs, a strong monarchy and institutions were needed. Legislative initiatives created a state based on Roman law, such as the Visigothic Code (Jurisdiction Court) or the Aula Regia. Monarchs sought collaboration with the Catholic Church (Councils of Toledo), becoming Christians and promoting national unity. The monarchy was elective, with failed attempts to make it hereditary. Social and economic problems included a ruralized society based on a dominant group controlling peasants. The economy was in recession, increasing social conflict. In this context, Islam arrived in 711; the last Visigoth king was defeated and killed in Cádiz, and the Kingdom of Toledo fell in three years. An example of Visigothic art is Quintanilla de las Viñas (Burgos).
5. Emirate and Caliphate
5. Emirate and Caliphate.
Muslim Spain became Al-Andalus, a province of the Islamic world, ruled by an emir, a delegate of the Muslim caliph (from the Umayyad family). In the mid-8th century, the Umayyads were victims of the Abbasid revolution and removed from power. However, Abd-al-Rahman I, a member of this family, was exiled to Al-Andalus, where he proclaimed himself emir and formed the independent emirate of Al-Andalus, with its capital in Córdoba. It was a century of prosperity until the mid-9th century, when internal conflicts weakened Al-Andalus, allowing Christians to advance in the Douro basin. It was not until 929, with Abd-al-Rahman III self-proclaimed caliph (political and religious leader), that Al-Andalus was restrengthened. It became a caliphate; the Christian advance was halted, infighting was settled, and the Fatimids (North African militants who wanted to invade the peninsula) were defeated. Major international diplomatic relations were established. With the offspring of Abd-al-Rahman III came an era of peace, unbroken until the next caliph, Mansur, whose military campaigns against northern Christians were terrifying. After Mansur’s death, a civil war in 1002 resulted in the fragmentation of Al-Andalus.
6. The 11th Century Crisis: Taifa Kingdoms
6. The Crisis in the Eleventh Century: The Taifa Kingdoms.
Mansur’s death in 1002 opened a long period of fragmentation and strife (fitna) in Al-Andalus. In less than thirty years, nine caliphs succeeded to the throne; the Caliphate of Córdoba disappeared in 1031. In its place emerged small kingdoms called Taifa kingdoms. The weakest were annexed by the most powerful. These small kingdoms, much weaker than the Caliphate, were subservient to Christian leaders, paying tribute (parias). The Christian Reconquista culminated in the conquest of Toledo in 1085. Once their unity was broken, Al-Andalus was at the mercy of the Christians in the north, who gradually occupied formerly Muslim territories. After their defeat at Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), Christian progress was unstoppable, and Muslim Spain was reduced to the small kingdom of Granada.
7. Al-Andalus: Economic and Social Organization
7. Al-Andalus: The Economic and Social Organization.
The economy was driven by agriculture; Muslims practiced irrigation, with significant developments such as the Ferris wheel, while introducing crops such as citrus, rice, cotton, and saffron. However, the main crops remained the same as in Roman-Visigothic times: cereals, vines, and olives. Manufacturing developed strongly, especially textile production. Pottery, weapons, paper and glass manufacturing, and fur and precious metalwork were present in Al-Andalus cities. There was strong trade with Islamic and European countries. Although most of Al-Andalus’s population lived in rural areas, cities were important. Andalusian towns developed mostly from Roman-Visigothic ones, but Muslims also created new cities like Almería, Madrid, and Calatayud, in addition to Córdoba. A middle class existed, mainly merchants. Al-Andalus had slaves from Eastern Europe and Central Africa. Women were clearly disadvantaged compared to men.
8. First Centers of Christian Resistance
8. The First Centers of Christian Resistance.
Between the 8th and 11th centuries, several areas in the north of the peninsula were dominated by Muslims, becoming the origin of later Christian kingdoms. The first was the Astur-Leonese, arising in the Cantabrian Mountains. In 722, there was a skirmish (Battle of Covadonga) between these people, led by the Visigothic nobleman Don Pelayo, and part of the Muslim army; the Christians won, becoming legendary. This is the origin of the Asturian kingdom. In the 9th century, under Alfonso I and Alfonso II, expansion began west to Galicia and east to the Basque Country. Alfonso II’s self-appointment as a descendant of Visigothic kings and the discovery of the tomb of Santiago, which became an emblem for Christian fighters, were very important. To the east, the defensive County of Castile emerged, becoming independent under Count Fernán González. Pyrenean counties originally belonged to the Carolingian Empire. However, along with Navarre, they became independent from the Franks, becoming the Counties of Aragon and the Kingdom of Navarre, respectively. The most flourishing time of the Kingdom of Navarre was under Sancho III, who also controlled Castile and Aragon. Finally, the Catalan counties, from the 8th to the 10th centuries (independent under Count Borrell II), were bound by allegiance to France and were called Marca Hispanica (border with the Muslim invasion). In the 12th century, they were annexed by Aragon.
9. Stages of the Reconquista
Reconquista call the process of advancement of the Christian kingdoms to the South Peninsula. During this process stages are interleaved phases of conflict and peace (through treaties and agreements). Include three periods:
S.VIII of the X: During this stage, the domain is a Muslim. The Christian kingdoms occupy Galicia, Basque Country and the Douro Valley. The Pyrenean kingdom come to the foot of Mt.
From s.XI to XIII: The Caliphate is decomposed in Taif, which facilitates the Christian advance. The Kingdom of Navarra leads to the Ebro, Castilla to the Tagus in the XI, and to the Sierra Morena in the XIII, and the C. Catalan to Tortosa. Portugal becomes independent kingdom and continued to reconquer their own. During this stage, progress is hampered Christian twice by the Almoravids and Almohads.
S.XIII of the XV. This stage begins with the Battle of Navas de Tolosa. From this, extends between the Christian Crusade mentality of religious war, which will mean the swift conquest of all the Guadalquivir valley, except Grenada. This is going to pay Taifa Castilla outcasts until conquered by Ferdinand and Isabella in the fifteenth century