Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: A History
The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Early Christian Resistance
In the 8th century, Muslims occupied most of the Iberian Peninsula. However, Christian nuclei persisted in the mountainous northern regions (Galicia, Cantabrian mountains, Pyrenees).
Two interpretations explain the origin of these nuclei:
- Traditional interpretation: Visigothic refugees in the north began the Reconquista.
- Modern interpretation: Northern indigenous peoples, not Romanized or dominated by the Visigoths, formed the resistance.
Four primary Christian nuclei emerged:
Asturias:
Founded by Don Pelayo after the Battle of Covadonga. The capital moved from Cangas de Onís to Oviedo. It expanded rapidly southward, reaching the Douro River by 900. The capital later moved to León, forming the Kingdom of León. The County of Castile emerged on the eastern side, becoming independent in 970 under Fernando González.Pamplona:
Later known as the Kingdom of Navarre.Aragonese Counties:
United to form the Kingdom of Aragon, with its capital in Jaca.Catalan Counties:
Initially dependent on the Carolingian Empire, these counties unified to form the County of Barcelona.
The latter three nuclei expanded southward at a slower pace.
The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Main Stages of the Reconquista
The Reconquista, the process of Christian expansion southward (8th-15th centuries), is divided into three main stages:
8th-10th Centuries:
Consolidation of Christian kingdoms and a slight southward advance. León reached the Douro, and the eastern realms expanded out of the Pyrenees. Progress was hampered by Almanzor’s troops in the 10th century.11th-12th Centuries:
The Caliphate of Córdoba fragmented. Christians gained military superiority, protecting the Taifa kingdoms in exchange for tribute. Alfonso VI of Castile conquered Toledo in the late 11th century, and the eastern realms reached the Ebro River. The arrival of the Almoravids halted the Reconquista, and the Tagus River became a borderline.13th-15th Centuries:
The Battle of Navas de Tolosa (1212) marked a turning point. The kingdoms of Castile, Navarre, and Aragon, led by Alfonso XIII, defeated the Almohad Empire. Fernando III, King of Castile and León, conquered Córdoba and Seville. His son, Alfonso X, took Cádiz and Murcia. By the 13th century, Granada was the only remaining Muslim nucleus. Internal crises in Castile and León slowed the Reconquista during the 14th and 15th centuries. Finally, in 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada, ending the Reconquista.
The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Pluralistic Culture
During the Reconquista, two cultural trends coexisted in Spain:
- European cultural influence arrived via the Camino de Santiago, introducing Romanesque and Gothic styles and European religious orders.
- The coexistence of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish cultures made Spain a bridge for transmitting classical culture preserved by Muslims, along with their own cultural contributions, to Europe. King Alfonso X of Castile and León established the School of Translators of Toledo to translate texts from Arabic into Latin and Castilian.
Although influences from all three cultures were present, the Christian culture was predominant. Persecutions occurred, particularly against the significant Jewish minority.