Immanuel Kant: Philosophy, Influences, and Legacy
Historical Background
The 18th century marked the culmination of transformations leading to the modern world, including the rise of national governments as absolute monarchies from the 15th century. Society remained stratified, and the economy was largely agricultural. Political tensions in the Old Regime were heightened by the rise of the bourgeoisie. The growth of mercantile capitalism increased the economic power of this class, fueling their desire to dismantle a political system that denied them power and granted privileges to the nobility. These bourgeois aspirations materialized in revolutions across Europe, ending absolutism. When Kant was born, Prussia, under Frederick William I, introduced compulsory primary education and fostered internal development.
Sociocultural Framework
Eighteenth-century society comprised aristocrats, bourgeois, craftsmen, and peasants. The bourgeoisie developed a new vision of man, leading to the Enlightenment. This era emphasized experience, rejected rationalism, and championed equality, freedom of thought, and happiness. The scientific revolution radically changed the understanding of the universe and the scientific method. The triumph of modern science allowed philosophy and religion to break away, proclaiming the autonomy of reason.
Philosophical Framework
Kant was educated in Pietism, a Lutheran sect. His thinking, part of the Enlightenment, defined this era as man’s liberation from his inability to use his intelligence independently. His notable works include Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Practical Reason, and Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. In the 18th century, reason was central to philosophical thought. Enlightenment philosophers shifted from the Cartesian rationalist approach to embrace Newton’s experimental approach. Kant’s reflection centered on man, leading to a “Copernican revolution” in knowledge.
Influences Received
Kant’s critical work marked a turning point in philosophy. It represented the culmination of Enlightenment thought, synthesizing and refining rationalism and empiricism. Kant was initially influenced by Wolff’s rationalism (an interpretation of Leibniz’s philosophy), but Hume’s work led him to acknowledge the role of feeling in knowledge. This “awakening from dogmatic slumber” resulted in a theory of knowledge and the first idealist theory (Kant’s Copernican revolution). His theory of knowledge aligns with his Enlightenment aspirations, emphasizing reason’s sovereignty in practical matters.
Impact
Following Kant, philosophy was written in German for an extended period. His work laid the foundation for the idealism of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. Even opponents of idealism, like Schopenhauer, began with Kant. Nietzsche’s “linguistic turn” in philosophy wouldn’t have been possible without Kant’s Copernican revolution. Neo-Kantians often presented Kant as a theorist of knowledge or science.
Effective Permanence
The limits of Kantian reason in its theoretical application remain relevant today, particularly in psychology, ethics, and politics.