Immanuel Kant: Reason, Morality, and the Pursuit of Enlightenment
Immanuel Kant’s Philosophy
Reason’s Role in Societal Transformation
Kant, initially a rationalist, later influenced by Hume, recognized the importance of reason in societal transformation. He emphasized the need for a critical review of human reason to prevent its misuse and understand its capacity. He believed that while reason is a valuable tool, blind trust in it should be avoided. Inspired by scientific advancements like those of Galileo and Newton, Kant sought to avert skepticism by determining the true potential and limitations of reason.
Kant’s Philosophical Project
Kant’s philosophical project aimed to answer three fundamental questions: What can I know? What should I do? What can I hope for? These questions converge into one: What is man? According to Kant, philosophy, summarized in anthropology, is divided into metaphysics, ethics, politics, and religion.
The Universality of Morality
Kant argued that reason should be analyzed not only in its application to scientific knowledge but also in its role in guiding behavior. A moral principle, he believed, is legitimate only if it applies universally to all human beings. This universality is achieved when morality is grounded in reason, which is consistent across all individuals. Therefore, moral principles derived from reason can aspire to universal validity.
Kantian Ethical Theory
Kant’s ethical theory is unique and distinct from previous ethical theories, which he categorized as material ethics. In contrast, Kant proposed formal ethics. Material ethics propose a highest good (e.g., happiness or pleasure) and provide rules to achieve it. Kant argued that material ethics suffer from three flaws:
- They are empirical and a posteriori, relying on experience, which cannot yield universal principles.
- Their precepts are hypothetical or conditional (e.g., “if you want X, do Y”), making them irrelevant to those who do not desire the proposed highest good.
- They are heteronomous, lacking freedom. Practical reason is subject to external influences rather than being self-governing.
Kant’s solution was formal ethics, which is empty of specific content, proposing no highest good or specific rules. It focuses on how we should act. Formal ethics is a priori, its imperatives are categorical, and practical reason enjoys autonomy.
Duty and the Categorical Imperative
Kant equated morality with the sense of duty, an innate aspect of human nature, often referred to as moral law. An action is morally good if done out of duty. Human actions can be classified as:
- Action contrary to duty: Clearly immoral.
- Action according to duty: The individual fulfills their moral obligation.
- Action from duty: The individual fulfills their moral obligation because it is their duty. These are the truly moral actions according to Kant.
Duty is experienced as an inner voice, expressed through the categorical imperative—an unconditional command, valid in itself. Only a categorical imperative can be a practical law because only it can apply universally to all human beings.
Kantian Morality and Religion
Kant’s morality leads to a religion within the bounds of reason. The postulates of practical reason are:
- Human freedom: Moral responsibility requires freedom.
- Immortality of the soul: A single lifetime is insufficient to achieve virtue; immortality ensures its attainment.
- Existence of God: God guarantees that virtue and happiness coincide, rewarding the virtuous with happiness.
Kant’s approach involves a return to God and the human soul, aspiring to a rational faith—a hope based on reason, not knowledge.
Historical Expectations
Kant also held historical expectations:
- Completion of the Enlightenment.
- Recognition of all individuals who use reason well and respect moral and civil laws as free citizens.
- Establishment of a political community based on reason, not habit or fear.
- Creation of a federation of free and sovereign states to ensure mutual respect and prevent war.