Imperialism and Colonialism: A Historical Analysis
Causes of Imperialism
Demographic: Increased population in Europe due to demographic pressure led to a need for more food and employment. This population influx was favored by governments, especially in Germany.
Political: Dominating more territory gave a state more international prestige and influence. Settlements represented strategic control points. Soldiers encouraged colonialism due to faster promotions in colonial wars.
Scientific-Technical: Geographical expeditions explored the interior of Africa, following rivers like the Niger and Congo, led by explorers such as Stanley, Brazza, and Livingstone. Superior Western weaponry aided territorial control. Scientific interest in fauna, flora, and advancements in transportation and communication also played a role.
Ideological: A belief in the superiority of the white race and Western civilization fueled a paternalistic duty to “civilize” other cultures. Catholic and Protestant missionaries aimed to spread Christianity, driven by a philanthropic ideology of improving the population’s conditions.
Economic: Related to the Second Industrial Revolution, industrialized countries (France, Germany, UK, USA, Japan) sought raw materials, energy sources, markets for products, labor, and capital investment locations. European countries sought solutions to the economic crisis caused by American wheat and industrial products. However, capital was often invested in industrialized or industrializing countries, not colonies. Most production and trade continued between industrialized nations. Colonial benefits primarily fell on a minority, not the general population of the metropolis. The middle class often bore the costs of colonialism through taxes.
Social: Lobbyists from economic and military sectors pushed governments toward colonialism. Some were drawn to the exotic and adventurous aspects of colonialism, while others criticized it.
Colonial Administration
Depending on the settlement type, colonies were categorized as:
- Exploitation colonies: Low metropolitan migration, focused on resource exploitation.
- Settlement colonies: Significant European emigre population with similar rights and privileges as metropolitan citizens.
The British Empire’s organizational model, applicable to other colonial empires, divided colonies based on governance:
- Colonies: No self-government, directly subordinate to the metropolitan government, often ruled by a governor.
- Protectorates: Existing Indian governments formally observed by the metropolitan government.
- Dominions: Sparsely populated territories with a white minority government and parliamentary system.
- Mandates: Post-World War I territories administered by a colonial power on behalf of the League of Nations.
Scramble for Africa
Until the mid-19th century, Africa’s interior remained largely unknown to Europeans. Scientists, adventurers, and countries were attracted to its potential wealth. European presence was limited to coastal trading posts.
From 1880, exploration of Africa began through river basins (Congo, Niger) leading to rapid occupation:
- North Africa: France occupied Algeria and Tunisia, while France and Spain established a protectorate in Morocco. England occupied Egypt and the Suez Canal to control the route to Asia. Italy occupied Libya.
- West Africa: Liberia remained independent. French, British, Spanish, Portuguese, and German settlements dotted the coast. France aimed to create a continuous empire across North Africa. Britain navigated the Niger River, leading to conflicts with France and the Berlin Conference of 1884-85, which established rules for African colonization, including free movement through rivers and effective territorial control.
- Congo Basin: In 1874, Stanley opened a route through the Congo to Zanzibar. Brazza reached the river from Gabon, settling on its right bank. Portugal claimed rights due to its presence at the river mouth. The Berlin Conference established a free state in the Congo, later occupied by Belgium.
- East Africa: Britain controlled the Nile Valley, Kenya, and Somalia. Italy occupied Eritrea and parts of Somalia. Germany occupied a strip along Lake Tanganyika. France established a protectorate over Madagascar.
- Nile Valley: A French expedition from Chad reached the upper Nile. Britain established a protectorate over Sudan, leading to the Fashoda Incident with France. Britain ultimately controlled the area.
- South Africa: Britain established the Cape Colony, displacing Dutch settlers (Boers) who created the independent republics of Transvaal and Orange. Diamond discoveries led to British occupation and war, resulting in British control of the entire territory.
Great Empires
- British: The largest empire, with manufactured products shipped to colonies and raw materials/foodstuffs imported. India was the main colony. Dominions hosted British populations (Canada, New Zealand, South Africa). Britain aimed for a continuous African empire, gaining significant territory but not complete control. Strategic locations facilitated trade with colonies.
- French: While economically motivated, prestige was a key factor. France aimed for a continuous African empire from the Red Sea to the Atlantic Ocean but failed. Indochina was a significant presence, along with Pacific islands and a protectorate over Madagascar. France sought to create a linguistic and cultural community aligned with metropolitan values.
- German: Primarily sought political prestige, settling in East and Southwest Africa, Cameroon, Pacific islands, and the Chinese coast.
- Japanese: Sought colonies for surplus population, raw materials, and energy sources, expanding in East Asia (Korea, Formosa, Manchuria).