Imperialism and Colonialism: A Historical Overview
Causes of Imperialism
Demographic Factors
Europe’s population surged, leading to increased competition for jobs and resources. Governments encouraged emigration, primarily to the Americas.
Economic Factors
The Second Industrial Revolution fueled the need for raw materials, energy sources, cheap labor, and new markets. Industrialized nations sought these resources, but often invested capital in other industrialized countries rather than colonies. Most trade continued between industrialized nations. Colonial profits benefited a minority, not the general population of the colonizing power. The middle class often bore the financial burden of colonialism through taxes.
Political Factors
Territorial control became a symbol of national power. Strategic locations were highly valued. Military leaders often advocated for colonial expansion, leading to preemptive colonial wars.
Scientific and Technological Factors
Geographical expeditions, driven by scientific curiosity, explored the interior of Africa, often following river routes. Western weaponry provided a significant military advantage over indigenous populations.
Ideological Factors
A belief in the superiority of the white race and a paternalistic sense of duty to “civilize” other cultures prevailed. Catholic and Protestant missionaries aimed to spread Christianity, often with the stated goal of improving the lives of indigenous people.
Social Factors
Financial and military lobbies pressured governments toward colonialism. However, critical voices against colonialism also emerged.
Colonial Administration
Two main types of colonies existed:
- Exploitation Colonies: Characterized by a small European population focused on resource extraction.
- Settlement Colonies: A significant European emigrant population enjoyed similar rights and privileges as those in the colonizing country.
Colonial governments varied:
- Colonies: Lacked self-government and were directly controlled by the colonizing power, usually through a governor.
- Protectorates: Retained a local government, but were formally overseen by the colonizing power.
- Dominions: Areas with small indigenous populations, governed by a white minority with a parliamentary system.
- Mandates: Established after World War I, these territories were overseen by a colonial power on behalf of the League of Nations.
Scramble for Africa
Until the mid-19th century, the interior of Africa remained largely unknown to Europeans. Scientists, adventurers, and nations were drawn to its potential wealth. European presence was initially limited to coastal trading posts. From 1880, exploration and occupation of Africa accelerated, often following river basins.
Nile Valley
French expeditions reached the upper Nile, while Britain established a protectorate over Sudan. Conflict arose between the two powers over control of the Nile.
South Africa
The British established the Cape Colony. The independent republics of Transvaal and Orange were later formed. The discovery of diamonds in the region led to British control over the entire territory.
Occupation of Asia
India
Annexations occurred in Burma (1886). Queen Victoria became Empress of India (1877). Britain controlled key ports like Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay. By 1857, Britain had consolidated control over India.
China
Europeans established trading posts in the 19th century. In 1839, China banned opium imports.
Indochina
French expansion occurred in Indochina, where the Dutch had already established a presence.
Expansion of Japan
Japan’s territorial rivalry with China led to the Russo-Japanese War.
Expansion of Russia
Russia expanded into Siberia, leading to disputes with the British Empire over control of Persia and Afghanistan.
Great Empires
British Empire
The most extensive empire, it shipped manufactured goods to its colonies and received raw materials and food in return. India was its most important colony. Dominions were intended to accommodate British settlers. Britain sought to create a continuous empire in Africa, securing significant territory.
French Empire
While motivated by economic interests, prestige was also a key factor. France aimed to create a continuous empire in Africa from the Red Sea to the Atlantic Ocean, but ultimately failed. A significant presence in Indochina was established, with an emphasis on creating a shared linguistic and cultural community.
German Empire
Driven by a desire for political prestige, Germany established colonies in East Africa, Southwest Africa, Cameroon, and Pacific islands.
Japanese Empire
Japan sought colonies to accommodate its growing population and secure raw materials and energy sources, focusing its expansion eastward.
Consequences
For the Colonizing Powers
The Second Industrial Revolution was strengthened. Expansionism was promoted. Colonial emigration provided an outlet for social pressures. The standard of living for emigrants to the colonies often improved. Colonial rivalries created international tensions.
For the Colonies
Population growth occurred. Traditional agriculture was often displaced by monoculture farming. Indigenous cultures were suppressed, and new diseases and drug dependencies emerged.