Imperialism and Colonialism: Causes and Consequences
Imperialism and Colonialism: 16th-20th Centuries
Imperialism and Colonialism are often used interchangeably, but they represent distinct phases of European expansion. Colonialism, typically associated with the 16th and 17th centuries, was driven by mercantilist policies. European metropolises established economic relationships with indigenous populations, exploiting resources and imposing their culture, political structures, and ways of life, which they considered superior. These settlements often held strategic value for controlling trade routes or areas of influence. The desire for continuous and systematic conquest wasn’t always clear, especially in situations of division between several powers.
Characteristics of Imperialism (Post-1880)
Around 1880, a shift occurred in imperialist attitudes. The expansion of the late 19th century had distinct characteristics:
- Territorial Conquest: The primary goal was the conquest of territory, not just economic exploitation, to achieve global power status.
- Political and Economic Control: While cultural influence was significant, the main objective was political and economic control over the territories.
- Strategic Domination: There was a strong interest in dominating trade routes and strategic locations.
The Spanish conquest of the Americas is often cited as a precedent for European imperialism. At its peak, European imperialism controlled over half of the world’s population.
Causes of Imperialism
Economic Factors
Imperialism was a consequence of the expansion of industrial capitalism. Excess capital accumulation in Europe led to a search for new territories for investment opportunities, such as:
- Railway construction
- Modernization of port facilities
- Loans to governments
Capitalist groups pressured states to promote imperialism, viewing it as beneficial during the economic crisis of 1873. This crisis led to a drop in prices and increased protectionism among major powers, creating a need for new markets without customs barriers. Colonies also served as sources of raw materials (minerals, cocoa, coffee, etc.) for industries in the metropolises.
Nationalism
In the second half of the 19th century, nationalist ideas radically transformed Europe’s political structure. Key examples include:
- The unification of Italy
- The unification of Germany
Political Factors
The context of European diplomacy, led by prominent figures like Bismarck and Chamberlain, played a crucial role. These politicians believed that a state’s importance was based on its ability to conquer territories and build an empire.
Other Causes
- Demographic Expansion: Europe’s growing population created pressure, leading to emigration to colonies. The period between 1850 and 1914 saw some of history’s most intense migratory movements.
- Ideological Factors: Racist theories developed, with some viewing the white race as superior. Writers and intellectuals promoted the “civilizing mission” of white people over other populations. This thinking justified sending teachers, building hospitals, and sending missionaries. Simultaneously, criticism of slavery and laws protecting indigenous people emerged.
- Exploration: There was a growing interest in exploring the planet and advancing geographical, geological, and geophysical knowledge.
Formation of Colonial Empires (1870-1914)
This period was characterized by:
- The development of the Second Industrial Revolution and capitalism.
- Competition between European nations for expansion and the creation of colonial empires.
- European imperialism reaching its peak, with powers expanding globally.
- Africa and parts of Asia (India and Indochina) becoming strategic points for the metropolises.
- In Latin America, new nations were engaged in wars and under dictatorships.
Strained international relations, imperialism, and complex alliance systems marked the end of this period and the beginning of the Great War (World War I).