Imperialism and World War I: A Historical Overview

Posted on Nov 3, 2024 in History

Imperialism and War

Bismarck and Armed Peace

The resentment of France after the loss of the rich regions of Alsace and Lorraine was a source of fear for Germany, which focused on their isolation.

  • Three Bismarckian systems were carried out between Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and later Italy. The unparalleled rivalry between Russia and Austria led to its failure.
  • From 1890 Bismarck was removed from power, passing into the hands of Kaiser Wilhelm II.
  • The alliance system proposed by Germany found an answer in the Triple Entente, formed by Russia, France, and the United Kingdom.

This period from 1871 to 1914, based on partnership and mutual distrust, is called Armed Peace, as states took the opportunity to arm themselves to levels hitherto unknown.

Colonial Imperialism

The term imperialism was born around 1840 in the midst of great ambiguity.

England, France, and Germany were the three great nineteenth-century imperialist powers, which were considered heirs to the Christian-Roman imperial idea.

There are several reasons that may explain Imperialism and Colonial Expansion, in any case related to a greater or lesser extent with the development of Phase II of the Industrial Revolution (Great Capitalism).

Economic:

  • Ensure areas where raw materials and abundant produce could be obtained. Export goods exclusively.
  • Ensure markets where capital could be placed.

Population:

  • Population expansion began to improve living conditions, technical improvements, and health, and major diseases were overcome.
  • Transport Revolution: Thanks to progress in land and sea transport, millions of people could change their continent.

Political:

  • Reasons of prestige and tense international relations required holding territories that gave strength to negotiate. Also, the fact of having strategic locations such as ports, bases, etc.

Cultural:

  • Expansion of the Christian faith, particularly Protestant. Racist ideas were born early. Technological superiority from the 19th century, especially. Bring progress to backward races.

Science:

  • Desire to explore new territories.

The major colonial powers were Britain and France, to which must be added other powers such as Germany, Italy, Belgium, Portugal, Spain, and the Netherlands. Africa was divided among them. In Asia, Russia and Japan would also compete.

Through diplomatic channels to resolve the competing interests in the Congo and elsewhere in Africa, the Berlin Conference (November 15, 1884) was convened, chaired by Bismarck. From that conference came the Treaty of February 26, 1885, laying down the foundations of the partition of Africa.

In general, with exceptions, East Africa was for the British, while the West was for the French. Germany won major holdings in both parts, such as Tanganyika (Tanzania), Southwest Africa (Namibia), Cameroon, and Togo. Italy got Somalia and Libya, Belgium the Congo, Portugal Angola and Mozambique, and Spain the Sahara and possessions in northern Morocco.

In Asia, the British and Dutch were the most favored, while Japan and Russia began to clash in their areas of expansion.

Consequences

The consequences of this colonial expansion are still alive today, with irrational borders that have led to numerous armed conflicts: Mozambique, Angola, South Africa, Namibia, Congo, Sudan, Chad, etc. Perhaps the most significant, as it affects world peace, is the one that has kept Jews and Palestinians apart.

More immediate consequences were:

  • Economic: The exploitation of resources led to monocultures. Ports were built on the coast and railways within the colonies.
  • Demographic and Social: Population growth by reducing mortality and the arrival of Europeans to indigenous lands. Extending racial segregation. It created a white social elite.
  • Cultural: Western culture was imposed.
  • Political: The colonies were a serious cause for rivalry between the metropoles.

The First World War

Causes of Conflict

  • The Franco-German rivalry. Disputes embodied in Alsace and Lorraine, and the Moroccan conflicts.
    • First Moroccan Crisis (1904-1906). Germany was in favor of Moroccan independence; it finally came under French-Spanish control.
    • Second Moroccan Crisis (1911). Economic reasons motivated Germany to send a warship to Agadir. The French gave the Germans a part of the Congo.
  • Differences between Britain and Germany, economic in nature. Germany was the new industrial giant and threatened British world hegemony. At stake was the domain of international trade.
  • The conflict in the Balkans. A conflict of strategic interests: control of a direct outlet to the Mediterranean, with Austro-Hungarians facing Russians. Through Serbia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Turkey.
    • In 1908, a weakened Turkey saw Austria-Hungary invade and take control of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Serbia went to Russia to avoid this situation but had to bow to Austria’s power.
    • First Balkan War (1912): A coalition of Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro faced Turkey, the former ruler of the area. Albania was created, and Turkey retreated to its current borders.
    • Second Balkan War (1913): The winners faced each other; Serbs and Greeks were the big winners, Bulgaria the loser.

The huge rivalry between Serbia and Austria would be endorsed when Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne, and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, on June 28, 1914, by a young extremist Serb, Gavrilo Princip, a member of a Serbian nationalist organization named Black Hand. It was the straw that broke the camel’s back.

Austria declared war on Serbia in July, and the machinery of partnerships was launched, eventually involving fighters worldwide.

Belligerent Countries

Different nations would join one of two blocks:

  • Triple Alliance, formed by Germany and Austria-Hungary (Italy had withdrawn and declared neutral), was called the Central Powers, as they were joined by the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.
  • Triple Entente: Britain, France, and Russia. Joined by Serbia, Belgium, Romania, Italy, Greece, Portugal, Japan, and the United States.

To these must be added the many soldiers from the colonies who fought for one side or another.

Characteristics of the Conflict

It was the first time that a war was so global, affecting much of the planet. But it also offered several developments with respect to previous conflicts.

  • There were new weapons (tanks, machine guns, gas, aircraft, submarines, etc.). Cavalry disappeared, giving way to developments such as armored vehicles and trucks. New systems of communication (telephone and telegraph) emerged. This led to the emergence of new combat techniques.
  • Massive incorporation of women into the labor market, particularly in factories in the rear.
  • The economy was focused on weapons production. The State intervened in the economy and produced food and energy rationing. This is what is called a War Economy, a term opposite to Market Economy.
  • Propaganda became a vital instrument for war.

Phases of Conflict Development

In July 1914, Austria declared war on Serbia. Other countries bound by the alliance system entered the war.

At first, it was thought to be a brief war; all contestants relied on a quick victory. But it was not; the war lasted until November 11, 1918.

  • War of Movement (1914). Germany held the Schlieffen Plan with varying fortune. This plan would bet on a blitzkrieg that would knock out France, to quickly move the bulk of the army to the east and defeat the Russians. The attack plan was implemented through Belgium. Belgium was soon to fall, but the Germans were jammed on French soil. France fought at the Battle of the Marne (September), containing the German advance.
  • War of Positions (1915-1916). Also known as trench warfare. New weapons like machine guns and toxic gases were widespread. There were large and bloody battles with thousands of deaths (Verdun, February 1916; Gallipoli (Turkey) in 1915; Somme, August 1916; Brusilov Offensive on the Eastern Front against the Austro-Hungarian in 1916), battles that did not achieve much progress, and the fronts remained stable. Trenches were dug, and from there, the war was fought. New allies entered into action: Bulgaria and Turkey to support the Central Powers, Italy and Romania for the Entente.
  • Momentous Events (1917). Two events marked this period: the triumph of the Russian Revolution in February, which overthrew Tsar Nicholas II and ultimately led to the withdrawal of Russia from the war, and the United States’ intervention in favor of the Entente. Germany clearly opted for submarine warfare, which caused serious damage to the Allied fleet. American economic interests, as leading providers of the Entente, were restrained, and merchant ships were attacked. The United States went to war in April. The October Revolution of 1917 represented the triumph of the Bolsheviks. The situation in Russia led to a disastrous economic situation and a civil war. Russia left the war.
  • The End of the War (1918). On March 3, Russia signed the Peace of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, whereby Russia accepted the conditions of the Central Powers and left the war. In the spring and summer of 1918, the last German offensives took place in northern France, followed by definitive Allied and United States counteroffensives, which forced Germany to surrender. On November 11, 1918, the armistice was signed.

The Paris Peace

The U.S. president, Woodrow Wilson, proposed a peace based on Fourteen Points to reach a just peace.

In the end, the interests of each country and the desire for revenge prevailed. The conditions imposed on the vanquished were very harsh (this was one of the causes of World War II), and several peace treaties were signed.

The Peace of Paris (1919-1920) resulted in several treaties, which include:

  • Treaty of Versailles with Germany.
  • Treaty of Saint-Germain with Austria, which was separated from Hungary. Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia appeared.
  • Treaty of Trianon with Hungary.
  • Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria.
  • Treaty of Sèvres with the Turkish Empire.

Russia, having previously withdrawn from the war, was not involved in the signing of these treaties.

Consequences of the War

  • Population:
    • Major loss of life: It is estimated that more than 9 million people were killed, but the exact figure is unknown.
    • Large number of wounded, maimed, orphaned, and disabled.
  • Social:
    • Integration of women into the workplace.
    • Maladjustment of former combatants into civilian life.
    • Impoverishment of the middle classes.
  • Territorial:
    • Creation of new states.
    • Return of territories (Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France).
    • Loss of colonies by Germany.
  • Economic:
    • High material losses.
    • Indebtedness of the warring European countries.
    • Loss of Europe’s economic hegemony for the benefit of the U.S.

The Russian Revolution

Historiography today speaks of revolutions, and there were several Russian revolutions.

Russia was ruled for centuries by the Tsar. It represented an authoritarian government that kept the country mired in backwardness and seemed more typical of the Middle Ages than modern times.

Marxist and anarchist ideas took shape among many intellectuals and spread among peasants and workers.

Since the beginning of the century (1905), there were several events that sought to overthrow the Tsar and change the government.

Since 1873, Russia had begun rapid industrialization, which led to the growth of a large working class (proletariat).

Between 1905 and 1917, there was an attempt at a bourgeois revolution.

In 1917, the Tsarist empire, after three years of war, was overthrown by a socialist revolution.

socialist revolution.