Imperialism, Armed Peace, and World War I: A Historical Overview
1. Imperialism (1875-1914)
Imperialism, a historical phenomenon between 1875 and 1914, involved European powers, the U.S., and Japan conquering new territories. These powers dominated the economies of the colonized countries. Contemporary with the Second Industrial Revolution, imperialism stemmed from protectionist measures that led nations to seek new markets to sustain economic growth. These new territories provided raw materials and energy sources for the new industries, and their production was exported back to the industrial powers. The conquest disregarded the native populations who defended their territories.
1.1 Factors
Political: Nationalism dictated that to be considered a major power, a country needed a colonial empire. New states like Italy and Germany sought to create their own empires, while others like France and Spain aimed to reclaim lost territories.
Strategic: To secure important colonies, territories bordering existing colonies were conquered. Coastal areas and islands were seized to control shipping routes to distant colonies.
Demographic: The powers experienced significant population growth, and colonies offered an outlet for their inhabitants to seek new opportunities. The ruling class saw colonization as a way to alleviate social tensions.
Cultural: A sense of cultural and racial superiority fueled a “civilizing mission” in less developed areas, imposing language and culture.
3. The Armed Peace
After unification in 1871, Germany became a major power. An armed peace ensued, lasting until 1914. While there were no major conflicts, tensions steadily increased due to several factors:
- Franco-Prussian War: France never accepted the loss of Alsace-Lorraine and desired revenge against Germany. Bismarck aimed to keep France diplomatically isolated.
- The Eastern Question (Balkans): The declining Ottoman Empire saw its subjects strive for independence, while Russia and Austria-Hungary sought to expand their influence in the region.
- Imperialist Expansion: Clashes occurred between European powers in Africa and Asia.
Bismarck made Berlin the center of international diplomacy. To isolate France, he signed the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879, later forming the Triple Alliance in 1882 with the addition of Italy. He also signed treaties with Romania and Bulgaria, negotiated with Russia and Great Britain, and made a deal with Russia.
3.1 Shift in Alliances
In 1890, Bismarck resigned, and his successor didn’t renew the agreement with Russia, opting to strengthen ties with Austria-Hungary. Russia then sought an alliance with France, potentially forcing Germany to fight a two-front war. France and Germany clashed in Morocco, resulting in the territory being divided between France and Spain.
France approached Great Britain, which had signed the Entente Cordiale with France in 1904. This, along with Russia, formalized the Triple Entente.
3.2 Balkan Wars
Ottoman weakness in the Balkans became evident: Bulgaria declared independence, and Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina. Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria formed the Balkan League to defeat the Ottoman Empire. They won the First Balkan War in 1912. The Second Balkan War erupted in 1913 between Bulgaria (allied with Austria-Hungary) and Greece and Serbia (supported by Russia). Bulgaria was defeated. The Ottoman Empire was reduced to a small area around Istanbul, and Russia gained influence in the region. Tensions between Austria-Hungary and Serbia escalated, culminating in the assassination of the Austrian Archduke by a Serbian terrorist, triggering World War I.
4. The First World War: Causes
Following the assassination, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia. Dissatisfied with the response, Austria-Hungary declared war on July 28, 1914. Within ten days, the war engulfed much of Europe. The Triple Entente (Serbia, Russia, France, Great Britain, and Belgium, which had been invaded by Germany en route to Paris) faced the Central Powers (Austria-Hungary and Germany). Over 30 countries joined the Triple Entente, while the Central Powers gained only two allies: Turkey and Bulgaria. The war became global, extending to colonies and other continents. The Triple Entente had greater manpower, but weaponry was more balanced.
4.1 Phases
War of Movement (1914): Germany advanced through Belgium towards Paris but was stopped at the Marne River. On the Eastern Front, Russia advanced, and the Central Powers retreated.
Trench Warfare (1915-1916): Little progress was made as fighting devolved into brutal trench warfare. Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, while Romania sided with the Allies. Italy declared war on the Central Powers. Fighting spread to the Middle East and colonies.
War of Attrition (1917): After the October Revolution, Russia withdrew from the war. Germany focused its forces on the French front, but two new allies emerged: Greece and the United States.
Major Offensives of 1918: Germany launched a new offensive against France. The Allies counterattacked on all fronts, forcing the Central Powers to surrender in September and November.
6. New Architectural Trends
Eclecticism: Combined elements from different historical styles, seen in buildings like the Paris Opera House.
Iron Architecture: Used in the construction of galleries, viaducts, and towers, such as the Eiffel Tower.
Modernism: Featured wavy lines, organic forms, and references to nature, exemplified by Antoni Gaudí and the Sagrada Familia.
The Chicago School (Louis Sullivan): Focused on building taller and taller structures.
7. The Visual Arts
Impressionism: Emphasized capturing light and color, using juxtaposed primary colors to create an image in the viewer’s retina. Key figures include Monet and Renoir.
Neo-Impressionism: Used a technique of combining myriad points of color to create a similar effect as Impressionism.
Post-Impressionism: Expressed dissatisfaction with Impressionism, with artists like Cézanne and Van Gogh emphasizing the expressive power of color independent of light.
7.1 Early Avant-Garde
Cubism: Created by Picasso, who lived in Barcelona and Paris, it involved a geometric decomposition of figures, as seen in Les Demoiselles d’Avignon.
Expressionism: Emphasized color and emotional distress, gaining prominence during World War I. Munch’s The Scream is a key example.
Abstraction: Broke away from nature and reason, using color and shapes to express the painter’s emotions.